Buddhism is part of Ancient History of India. Below are notes on 13 sub-topics, followed by practice MCQs from State PSC and UPSC papers.

Buddhist Art and Architecture: Stupas, Chaityas, Viharas, Gandhara and Mathura Schools

  • Stupas:
    • Buddhist origin, principal funerary monuments.
    • Repository of relics (Buddha, monks); votive and commemorative structures.
    • Ashoka: Played significant role in popularizing Stupa cult, building and expanding many.
    • Often located near trade routes, not exclusively rural areas.
    • Sanchi Stupa: Not connected to any incident of Buddha's life. Southern gateway depicts Ashoka's pilgrimage to Bodhi tree.
    • Bharhut Stupa: Features detailed depiction of Jetvan donation by Anathpindak.
    • Amaravati & Nagarjunikonda Stupas: Characterized by platforms with 'Aryak-Pillars'.
  • 'Rit' (Rta): Refers to the Natural Law or cosmic order in Indian culture.
  • Surya Sukta: A hymn in the 10th Mandala of the Rigveda that reflects upon marriage ceremonies.
  • Vedic sacrifices (Shrauta): Involved three sacred fires: Garhapatya (householder's fire, placed in a square pit), Ahavaniya (offeratorial fire, placed in a round pit), and Dakshinagni (southern fire, placed in a rectangleshaped or semi-circular pit).
  • Apsaras: Described in the Rigveda as heavenly dancers and often wives of Gandharvas.
  • Boghazkoi Inscription (approx. 1400 BCE): Mentions Vedic deities Indra, Varuna, Mitra, and Nasatyas (Ashvins); Agni is notably NOT mentioned in this inscription.
  • Pashupati: A male god associated with the Indus Valley Civilization (Indus religion), not the Vedic religion.
    • Purushpur Stupa (Peshawar): Built by Kanishka (400 ft high, 13-storeyed) under Greek supervision of Agesilaus.
    • Kesariya Stupa: World's largest Stupa.
  • Chaityas (Prayer Halls) & Viharas (Monasteries):
    • Chaitya: Buddhist prayer hall or shrine, often housing a Stupa at one end.
    • Vihara: Dwelling place/monastery for Buddhist monks.
    • Kanheri Caves: Famous for rock-cut caves, including one depicting an eleven-headed Bodhisattva image.
    • Karle Caves: Exemplifies large rockcut Chaitya halls.
  • Buddhist Art & Paintings:
    • Early Buddhist Art: Buddha was not shown in human form. His presence was indicated through symbols: Empty Seat (meditation/enlightenment), Wheel (first sermon/Dharmachakra Pravartana), Tree (Bodhi tree/enlightenment), Stupa (Mahaparinirvana).
    • Ajanta Caves: Predominantly Buddhist rock-cut caves. Paintings (murals) on walls/ceilings depict mainly Jataka tales (incidents relating to life of Gautama Buddha and his previous lives).
    • Bodhisattva Padmapani: One of the most famous paintings at Ajanta.
    • Buddhist mural tradition from India (e.g., Ajanta) was adopted in distant regions like Central Asia (e.g., Bamiyan in Afghanistan).
  • Gandhara School of Art (Indo-Greek Style):
    • Region: North-West India (modern Pakistan/Afghanistan).
    • Influence: Greco-Roman (Hellenistic) artistic traditions.
    • Features: Realistic human form of Buddha/Bodhisattvas; wavy hair, drapery with clear folds, muscular body, detailed facial features, sometimes moustaches. Grey sandstone or stucco used.
    • Patronage: Primarily Kushana rulers (e.g., Kanishka).
  • Mathura School of Art (Indigenous Style):
    • Region: Mathura (Uttar Pradesh).
    • Influence: Indigenous Indian artistic traditions.
    • Features: Powerful, indigenous images of Buddha; shaven head or short curly hair; right hand in Abhaya Mudra; left hand on thigh or holding drapery; full face, energetic body, often smiling. Made of red sandstone.
    • Patronage: Primarily Kushana rulers. Also produced images of Hindu deities and Jaina Tirthankaras.

Buddhist Councils and their Significance

First Buddhist Council 1.

    • Year: 483 BC (Immediately after Buddha's Mahaparinirvana)
    • Place: Rajgriha (Rajgir), Saptaparni Cave
    • Patron: King Ajatashatru (Haryanka dynasty)
    • President: Mahakashyapa
    • Significance/Outcome:
      • Compilation of Vinaya Pitaka (monastic rules) by Upali.
      • Compilation of Sutta Pitaka (Buddha's teachings) by Ananda. Second Buddhist Council 2.
    • Year: 383 BC (100 years after Buddha's Mahaparinirvana)
    • Place: Vaishali
    • Patron: King Kalashoka (Shishunaga dynasty)
    • President: Sabakami (also known as Revata or Sabbakami)
    • Significance/Outcome:
      • Addressed disputes over 10 points of monastic discipline.
      • First schism in the Sangha, leading to the formation of Sthaviravada (orthodox) and Mahasanghika (liberal) sects. Third Buddhist Council 3.
    • Year: 250 BC
    • Place: Pataliputra
    • Patron: Emperor Ashoka (Mauryan dynasty)
    • President: Moggaliputta Tissa
    • Significance/Outcome:
      • Compilation of Abhidhamma Pitaka (philosophical interpretations).
      • Efforts to purify the Sangha from heresies.
      • Dispatch of Buddhist missionaries to various countries (e.g., Ceylon/Sri Lanka). Fourth Buddhist Council 4.
    • Year: 72 AD
    • Place: Kundalvana, Kashmir
    • Patron: Emperor Kanishka (Kushan dynasty)
    • President: Vasumitra (Vice-President: Ashvaghosha)
    • Significance/Outcome:
      • Major split of Buddhism into Hinayana and Mahayana sects.
      • Compilation of Mahavibhasha Sutra, an encyclopaedia of Buddhist philosophy.
      • Proceedings conducted in Sanskrit. Common element among Rajagriha, 5. Vaishali, and Pataliputra: All are places where major Buddhist Councils were held.

Buddhist Literature: Tripitakas, Jataka Tales, other important texts

  • Tripitakas (Pali Canon): Sacred texts of Buddhism, written in Pali. Literally means "Three Baskets".
  • Vinaya Pitaka: Contains rules and regulations for the Buddhist monastic order (Sangha), duties of monks (227 rules) and nuns (311 rules), and protocols for clothes, medicines, vehicles. Has four main parts.
  • Sutta Pitaka: Contains Buddha's discourses and sermons. Includes stories of female monks and great truths. Divided into five Nikayas:
    • Digha Nikaya: Long discourses. Contains Brahmajala Sutta (describes 62 contemporary religious practices).
    • Majjhima Nikaya: Medium-length discourses. Contains dialogue on Varna between King Avantiputta and Kachchana. Written in Pali.
    • Samyutta Nikaya: Connected discourses.
    • Anguttara Nikaya: Numerical discourses.
    • Khuddaka Nikaya: Minor collection. Includes Jataka Tales, Dhammapada, Therigatha, Milinda Panha.
  • Abhidhamma Pitaka: Deals with Buddhist philosophy, psychology, and metaphysics. 'Yamaka' is a text belonging to it.
  • Jataka Tales: Part of Khuddaka Nikaya. Stories about Buddha's previous lives (Bodhisattva). Written in Pali. Ajanta paintings extensively depict Jataka scenes (e.g., Gandatindu Jataka).
  • Dipavamsa & Mahavamsa: Pali chronicles from Sri Lanka. Genealogical texts that provide accounts of Buddhist history, including Mauryan Emperor Ashoka.
  • Milinda Panha: Dialogue between the IndoGreek King Menander (Milinda) and the Buddhist monk Nagasena. Written in Pali.
  • Therigatha: Part of Khuddaka Nikaya. First surviving poetry composed by Indian women (Buddhist nuns), describing their experiences of renunciation.
  • Important Sanskrit Buddhist Texts:
    • Ashvaghosha: Most outstanding Buddhist writer in Sanskrit. Works include Buddhacharita (biography of Buddha), Saundarananda, Sariputraprakarana.
    • Divyavadana (Avadanasataka): Collections of 'Avadanas' (stories illustrating karma). Avadanasataka is said to explain eight phases of agriculture (as per one MCQ).
    • Aryamanjushree Moolkalp: Important Sanskrit Buddhist text.
    • Lalitavistara: A full-fledged biography of the Buddha, belonging to the Hinayana sect, also called 'The Encyclopaedia of Buddhist Principles'. Edwin Arnold's 'The Light of Asia' is based on it.
    • Prajnaparamita Sutra: A key Mahayana Buddhist text emphasizing "perfection of wisdom."
    • Sarvastivada Vinaya: Monastic rules of the Sarvastivada school. Indian Buddhist monk Sanghabhuti (late 4th century AD) authored a commentary on it.
  • Faxian (Fa Hien): Chinese Buddhist monk (late 4th/early 5th century AD). His travelogue, 'Gaoseng Faxian Zhuan', is an early first-hand Chinese account of Buddhist sites in India. His main aim was to obtain and translate texts containing monastic rules (Vinaya Pitaka).
  • Dharma-Ratna (Dharma Raksha): A monk who translated Buddhist texts into Chinese, notably in the early centuries AD.
  • Ashokan Inscriptions: The Bhabru (Bairat) Edict suggests Buddhist devotees to study specific Buddhist scriptures.
  • Dr. B.R. Ambedkar's Works: "The Buddha and His Dhamma," "Annihilation of Caste," and "Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Ancient India." "The Nadars of Tamilnad" is not his work.

Causes for the Rise of Buddhism in India

  • Rejection of Vedic authority, elaborate rituals, and costly sacrifices.
  • Opposition to the rigid caste system and Brahmanical dominance, offering social equality.
  • Advocacy of the "Middle Path," avoiding extremes of self-indulgence and severe asceticism; practical and ethical.
  • Simplicity of doctrine, moral code, and use of vernacular language (Pali) for accessibility to common people.
  • Focus on individual conduct, self-effort, and removal of suffering over ceremonial acts.
  • Atheistic/agnostic stance: did not accept a creator God or focus on supernatural entities.
  • Retained concepts like Karma and Rebirth (Punarjanma) but offered a non-ritualistic path to Moksha/Nirvana.
  • Emphasis on Ahimsa (non-violence), appealing to agriculturalists and traders.
  • Patronage from rulers, trading communities, and urban classes.

Early Buddhist Sangha and its Structure

  • Buddhist Sangha: Organization of monks (and later nuns) established to preserve and propagate the Dhamma (Buddhist teachings).
  • Upasaka/Upasika: Male/female lay followers of Buddhism who take refuge in the Triple Gem but do not renounce household life.
  • Pabbajja (Pravrajya): Initial ordination ceremony, marking the renunciation of home life and entry into the Sangha as a novice (samanera/samaneri).
  • Upasampada: Higher ordination ceremony, granting full and permanent membership in the Buddhist Sangha as a bhikkhu (monk) or bhikkhuni (nun).
  • Gautam Buddha allowed the entry of women as bhikkhunis (nuns) into the Sangha at Vaishali.
  • Mahapajapati Gotami: Buddha's foster mother, who became the first woman to enter the Sangha and be ordained as a bhikkhuni.
  • Theris (Sthaviri): Term used to refer to respected elder nuns in the Buddhist Sangha.
  • Uposatha: A bi-monthly day of observance (new moon and full moon days) for intensified practice, including the recitation of the Patimokkha (monastic rules) by monks/nuns.
  • Pavarana: A ceremony held at the end of the Vassa (rainy season retreat), where monks would confess any offences committed during their stay in the monastery.

Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path

  • Four Noble Truths (Chatvari Aryani Satyani): Propounded by Buddha in his first sermon (Dharma Chakara Pravartana Sutta) at Sarnath. Centered on suffering (Dukkha) and its extinction.
  • 1. Dukkha (Suffering): Life is inherently suffering; existence is full of sorrow. (This is the basic truth).
  • 2. Samudaya (Origin of Suffering): Suffering arises from craving (Trishna/Tanha) and attachment (Upadana). The root cause of impressions (Sanskar) and rebirth is ignorance (Avidya).
  • 3. Nirodha (Cessation of Suffering): Suffering can be ended by extinguishing craving (Trishna). This cessation is Nirvana.
  • 4. Magga (Path to Cessation of Suffering): The way to end suffering is by following the Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marg).
  • Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marg): Also known as the Middle Path (Madhyama Marga), it is the practical guide to attain Nirvana, avoiding extremes. It is divided into three categories: Prajna (Wisdom), Sila (Ethical Conduct), and Samadhi (Mental Discipline).
  • A. Prajna (Wisdom): Right Understanding/View (Samma 1. Ditthi): Comprehending the Four Noble Truths. Right Thought/Resolve (Samma 2. Sankappa): Thoughts of renunciation, goodwill, and non-violence.
  • B. Sila (Ethical Conduct): (Focuses on purity of thought and conduct, mental and physical control). Right Speech (Samma Vaca): Abstain1. ing from lying, harsh speech, slander, and idle chatter. Right Action (Samma Kammanta): Ab2. staining from killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct. Right Livelihood (Samma Ajiva): 3. Earning a living in a non-harmful way.
  • C. Samadhi (Mental Discipline/Concentration): Right Effort (Samma Vayama): Striv1. ing to prevent unwholesome states and cultivate wholesome ones. Right Mindfulness (Samma Sati): 2. Awareness of body, feelings, mind, and mental objects. Right Concentration (Samma Sa3. madhi): One-pointed meditation leading to higher states of consciousness.
  • Nirvana: The ultimate goal in Buddhism; the extinction of the flame of desire (Trishna); cessation of suffering and the cycle of rebirth (samsara). It is a state of bliss and rest, not the complete annihilation of self but the cessation of an illusory, permanent self.
  • Anātma-vada (No-Self): Buddhist doctrine denying a permanent, unchanging soul or self (Atman).
  • Kshanikavada (Doctrine of Momentariness): Buddhist doctrine asserting that everything is momentary and in constant flux.
  • Avidya (Ignorance): The fundamental root cause of Sanskar (impressions), suffering, and rebirth in the chain of Dependent Origination.
  • Trishna (Craving/Desire): The immediate cause of all sorrows and rebirth.
  • Buddhism does not believe in a final, permanent annihilation of the world; rather, it posits cycles of creation and destruction.
  • The Ashoka Chakra, found in the National Flag, consists of twenty-four spokes, symbolizing Dharma.

Key Buddhist Thinkers and Philosophers (e.g., Nagarjuna, Asanga)

  • Nagarjuna: Founder of the Madhyamika (Sunyavada) school. Key concept: Shunyata (emptiness). Main text: Madhyamika Karika.
  • Asanga: Co-founder of the Yogachara (Vijnanavada) school with his brother Vasubandhu. Key concept: Mind-only (Cittamatra).
  • Vasubandhu: Brother of Asanga, co-founder of the Yogachara school. Notable works include Abhidharmakosha Karika.
  • Nagasena: Buddhist monk whose dialogues with Indo-Greek King Menander I (Milind) are recorded in 'Milind Panho'.
  • Manjusri: Bodhisattva of wisdom (Prajna).
  • Avalokitesvara: Bodhisattva of compassion (Karuna).
  • Maitreya: The future Buddha.
  • Vajrapani: Bodhisattva representing the power of all Buddhas.
  • Jimutavahana: The protagonist of Emperor Harshavardhan's play 'Nagananda', depicted as embodying Bodhisattva-like qualities of self-sacrifice and compassion.

Life and Teachings of Gautama Buddha

  • Birth: Siddhartha Gautama, born c. 567 BCE in Lumbini (present-day Nepal).
  • Clan: Sakya clan (hence Shakyamuni).
  • Foster Mother: Mahapajapati Gotami.
  • Meaning of 'Buddha': An enlightened one.
  • Other Names/Epithets: Shakyamuni, Tathagata, Light of Asia.
  • Teachers before Enlightenment: Alara Kalama and Udraka Ramaputra.
  • Mahabhinishkramana (Great Departure/Renunciation): Buddha's renunciation of worldly life at age 29. Symbolized by a horse.
  • Enlightenment (Nirvana/Buddhahood): Attained at Bodh Gaya (Bihar, India) under a Bodhi Tree.
  • Dharmachakrapravartana (First Sermon): Delivered at Sarnath (Uttar Pradesh, India). Also known as Paramachakra Pravartana. Symbolized by a Dharma Chakra (wheel).
  • Core Teachings: Emphasized leading a moral life for emancipation from suffering. The seed of Buddhist philosophy is traced to his teachings.
  • Associated Kingdoms/Places: Kosala and Magadha.
  • Maximum Varsavasas (Rainy Seasons): Spent at Sravasti (capital of Kosala).
  • Ruler of Sravasti: King Prasenjit, who was of the same age as Gautama Buddha.
  • Physician: Jivaka was a famous physician during Buddha's time.
  • Last Rainy Season: Spent at Vaishali.
  • Mahaparinirvana (Death): Attained at Kushinagar (Uttar Pradesh, India) in the Republic of the Mallas.
  • Attendant at Mahaparinirvana: Ananda.
  • Last Sermon at Kushinagar: Given to Subhadda.
  • Last Person Converted by Buddha: Subhadda.
  • Individuals NOT initiated into Buddhism at Anupiya (while returning from Kapilavastu to Rajagriha): Amrapali (though she later became a Buddhist nun, this event did not occur at Anupiya at this specific time).

Major Ancient Buddhist Sites and their importance

  • Bodh Gaya: Situated on River Niranjana. Site of Buddha's enlightenment. Monks of Mahabodhi Monastery wrote letters to Hiuentsang.
  • Ratnagiri (Odisha): Contains the Madhavapura Mahavihara.
  • Tabo Monastery and Temple Complex: Located in Spiti Valley.
  • Lhotsava Lhakang Temple, Nako: Located in Spiti Valley.
  • Alchi Temple Complex: Located in Ladakh.
  • Dhanyakataka (Amaravati): Located in Andhra. Flourished as a prominent Buddhist center under the Mahasanghikas.
  • Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh): Stupa complex. Preservation and documentation efforts were contributed by Shahjahan Begum, Sultan Jehan Begum, and John Marshall. J.M. Kenoyer did not contribute to Sanchi's preservation.
  • Patliputra: Ashokaram monastery was situated here.
  • Buddhist Caves: Prominent sites include Ajanta and Bagh. Bulsar (Valsad) is not known for ancient Buddhist caves.
  • Bairath (Rajasthan): Identified as a Buddhist town by archaeologist T.H. Handley.
  • Nalanda Mahavihara: Hiuen-Tsang attributes its founding to Kumaragupta I. Believed to be destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khalji (c. 1193 CE).
  • Major Buddhist Pilgrimage Sites: Lumbini (Buddha's birth), Sarnath (first sermon), Kushinagar (Mahaparinirvana).
  • Shravanabelagola: Primarily a major Jain pilgrimage site, not associated with Buddhism.

Major Schools of Buddhism: Hinayana, Mahayana, Vajrayana (origins and characteristics)

(origins

and

characteristics)

  • Buddhism is a Nastika (heterodox) school of thought.
  • First idol worship (Murti-Pooja) in India was for Buddha.
  • The primary schism in Buddhism, leading to Hinayana and Mahayana, occurred after the Second Buddhist Council (Vaishali, leading to Mahasanghika) and solidified at the Fourth Buddhist Council (Kashmir, patronized by Kanishka).
  • Hinayana (Lesser/Small Vehicle)
    • Focus: Individual enlightenment, attaining Arhant-ship.
    • Buddha: Regarded as an enlightened human being and a teacher, not a god.
    • Practices: Emphasized strict adherence to original teachings and personal effort for salvation.
    • Language: Primarily used Pali for scriptures.
    • Image Worship: Did not practice idol worship of Buddha.
    • Concept: Arhant (worthy one who attains personal nirvana).
    • Sects: Sthaviravada (ancestor of Theravada), Vaibhashika (Sarvastivadin), Sautrantika, Sammitiya.
    • Sarvastivadin: Held that the constituents of phenomena (dharmas) were not wholly momentary, but existed forever in a latent form.
  • Mahayana (Greater/Big Vehicle)
    • Focus: Compassion (Karuna) and wisdom (Prajna), Bodhisattva path.
    • Buddha: Deified and worshipped as a God; believed in multiple Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.
    • Practices: Allowed transference of merit; emphasized image worship and rituals.
    • Language: Primarily used Sanskrit for scriptures.
    • Concept: Bodhisattva (deeply compassionate being who delays own Nirvana to help all sentient beings attain enlightenment). This concept is central to Mahayana.
    • Origin: Fostered by the deification practices of the Mahasanghikas. The Mahasamghika School arose in Vaishali. Lokottaravadin sect was an offshoot of Mahasanghika.
    • Philosophies: Shun'yavada (Madhyamaka, propounded by Nagarjuna) and Yogachara (Vijnanavada).
    • Texts: Aryamanjushrimulakalpa.
    • Future Buddha: Maitreya is the future Buddha who will come to save the world.
    • Bodhisattvas: Avalokitesvara (also known as Padmapani), Manjusri, Vajrapani.
    • Patronage: Patronized by kings like Kanishka (who organized the 4th Buddhist Council) and later by Pala kings.
    • Spread: Spread extensively to Central Asia, China, Korea, and Japan.
  • Vajrayana (Diamond/Thunderbolt Vehicle)
    • Origin: Evolved from Mahayana, incorporating Tantric elements. Known as Tantric Buddhism.
    • Practices: Emphasized esoteric rituals, mantras, mudras, mandalas, and tantric meditation techniques (similar to some Hindu Tantric practices).
    • Goal: Aims for rapid enlightenment in a single lifetime.
    • Ceremonies: Kalchakra ceremony is associated with Vajrayana.
    • Patronage: Patronized by Pala kings.
    • Spread: Prominent in Tibet, Nepal, and Bhutan (Tibetan Buddhism).

Patronage and Spread of Buddhism (e.g., Ashoka, Kanishka)

  • Ashoka's initial turn to Dhamma, as per Mahavamsa, was influenced by his nephew Nigrodha.
  • Divyavadana attributes Ashoka being drawn to Buddha's teachings to the influence of Upagupta.
  • Ashoka embraced Buddhism after the Kalinga War.
  • Ashoka promoted the spread of Buddhism extensively through edicts and missions.
  • Ashoka's Rummindei Pillar inscription confirms Lumbini as the birthplace of Gautama Buddha.
  • Ashoka is referred to as 'Buddhashakya' in the Maski edict.
  • Pushyamitra Shunga did not contribute to the expansion of Buddhism; he is known for persecuting Buddhists.
  • Kanishka was a major patron of Buddhism, particularly Mahayana Buddhism.
  • Kanishka was the chief patron of the Fourth Buddhist Council.
  • Buddha is depicted on the coins of Kanishka.
  • During Ashoka's time, missionary Rakkhita was sent to Vanavasi, while Sona and Uttara were sent to Suvarnabhumi. Majjhima was sent to Himvant (Himalayan region) and Dhammarakkhita to Aparantaka.
  • Harshavardhan was also a significant patron of Buddhism.

Social and Cultural Impact of Buddhism on Indian Society

  • Challenge to Varna System: Rejected Brahmanical superiority; promoted equality and welcomed people from all social strata into the Sangha.
  • Elevation of Women's Status: Allowed women to join the Bhikkhuni Sangha, providing an alternative path for spiritual and intellectual development, challenging prevailing patriarchal norms. While general societal trends might show decline, Buddhism offered opportunities and access to education/spiritual learning for women.
  • Ethical and Moral Framework: Emphasized the Middle Path, Ahimsa (non-violence, though less extreme than Jainism), truthfulness, self-control, and compassion, influencing societal conduct.
  • Accessibility and Language: Used Pali (Prakrit) instead of Sanskrit, making its teachings accessible to the common populace.
  • Art and Architecture: Inspired the construction of Stupas, Viharas, Chaityas, and rockcut caves (e.g., Ajanta, Ellora), fostering unique artistic styles.
  • Education: Established renowned monastic universities like Nalanda, Vikramshila, and Valabhi, becoming centers of learning.
  • International Impact: Facilitated the spread of Indian culture, philosophy, and art to Southeast Asia and East Asia.
  • Reduction in Animal Sacrifice: Its strong emphasis on Ahimsa contributed to the decline of Vedic ritualistic animal sacrifices.
  • Difference from Jainism (regarding Soul/ Atma): Buddhism denies the existence of an eternal, unchanging soul (Anatta/Anatma doctrine), whereas Jainism believes in the existence of an eternal soul (Jiva) in every living being.

5. Jain Religion

Triratnas (Three Jewels): Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha

  • Triratnas (Three Jewels) are the fundamental refuges in Buddhism.
  • They are: Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha.
  • Buddha: Refers to Siddhartha Gautama, the Enlightened One and the teacher.
  • Dhamma: Refers to the teachings and doctrine of Buddha (e.g., Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path).
  • Sangha: Refers to the monastic community of monks (Bhikkhus) and nuns (Bhikkhunis) who follow and propagate the Dhamma.
  • Buddhists take refuge by reciting: "Buddham Sharanam Gacchami, Dhammam Sharanam Gacchami, Sangham Sharanam Gacchami."
  • The trident-shaped symbol in Buddhism represents the Triratnas (Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha); it does not represent Nirvana.
  • Upasaka (male) / Upasika (female): Lay followers of Buddhism who adhere to its principles but do not join the monastic Sangha.
  • Shramana: A general term for an ascetic or renunciant (e.g., Buddhist monks, Jain ascetics), not specifically a priest with high status.

extreme care in all actions. (Addresses MCQ 3)

  • Satya (Truthfulness): Speaking the truth, but only when it is pleasant and does not cause harm to others.
  • Asteya (Non-stealing): Not taking anything that is not freely given or belongs to another.
  • Brahmacharya (Chastity/Celibacy): Complete abstinence from sensual pleasures, especially sexual activity, for ascetics; fidelity and restraint for householders.
  • Aparigraha (Non-possession/Non-attachment): Renunciation of possessions and detachment from worldly things. Limiting wants and needs.
  • The five components of Panch Mahavratas are: Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Brahmacharya, and Aparigraha. (Addresses MCQ 2)

Practice MCQs: Buddhism

Buddhist Art and Architecture: Stupas, Chaityas, Viharas, Gandhara and Mathura Schools

  1. Rigveda contains the maximum numbers of Shlokas with regard to

    Asked in: GS 32 2023 IS DEEO 1505 2024

    1. Indra
    2. Brahma
    3. Vishnu
    4. Shiva
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Indra

    Indra is the most frequently invoked deity in the Rigveda, with a significant portion of its hymns dedicated to him.

  2. Pashupati, a male god is associated with

    Asked in: Management Officer Exam 2011 · APSC CCE Prelims Exam 2016

    1. Indus religion
    2. Vedic religion
    3. Buddhism
    4. Jainism
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Indus religion

    The Pashupati seal is a significant artifact from the Indus Valley Civilization. B. legends relating to Vikramaditya C. incidents relating to the life of Gautama Buddha D. incidents relating to the life of Mahavira Ans: C Ajanta Caves are famous for their ancient Buddhist rock-cut temples and monastery complexes featuring murals depicting the life of Buddha and Jataka tales.

  3. In Indian art, the construction of ‘Stupa’, ‘Chaitya’ and ‘Vihara’ is related to which of the following?

    Asked in: BPSC Prelims Exam 69th

    1. Ajivika sect
    2. Vaishnava sect
    3. Buddhism
    4. Shaiva sect
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Buddhism

    Stupas are mounds containing relics, Chaityas are prayer halls, and Viharas are monasteries. These structures were central to Buddhist religious practices and monastic life.

  4. Which one of the following statements about Buddhist Stupas in India is not correct?

    Asked in: UPSC CDS 1 2018

    1. Ashoka played an important role in populariz‐ ing the Stupa cult.
    2. They were repositories of relics of Buddha and other monks.
    3. They were located in rural areas.
    4. They were located close to trade routes.
    Show answer

    Answer: C. They were located in rural areas.

    Buddhist Stupas served as centers of pilgrimage and worship. While some might have been in relatively less populated areas, many significant Stupas were built in or near important urban centers, trade routes, or places associated with the Buddha's life or relics. Locating them near trade routes and populated areas facilitated access for devotees and merchants, contributing to the spread of Buddhism.

  5. Where is the Buddhist rock-cut cave which depicts eleven-headed Bodhisattva image?

    Asked in: GPSC Prelims CSP 1 2021

    1. Ajanta
    2. Ellora
    3. Kanheri
    4. Karle
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Kanheri

    The Kanheri caves are a large complex of rock-cut monuments, primarily Buddhist, dating from the 1st century BCE to the 10th century CE. The eleven- headed Avalokiteshvara is a significant Mahayana Buddhist motif representing the Bodhisattva's compassion and ability to perceive the suffering of beings in all realms.

  6. Given below are two statements: Statement I : The walls of the Buddhist care Shrines were coverage with murals illustrating Buddhist narratives. Statement II : A more distant region where this tradition of Indian painting was adopted was Central Asia. Commencing at Baniyan in Afghanistan, and Traversing Central Asia were serious of Buddhist monasteries with shrines cut into the hills and covered with murals. In the light of the above statements, choose the correct answer from the options given below:

    Asked in: HAS Prelims 2022

    1. Both statements I and II are true.
    2. Both statements I and II are false.
    3. Statement I is correct but Statement II is false.
    4. Statement I is false but Statement II is correct.
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Both statements I and II are true.

    - Statement I: Many Buddhist cave shrines in India, such as those at Ajanta, Bagh, and parts of Ellora, are famous for their extensive mural paintings depicting the life of the Buddha, Jataka tales (stories of his previous lives), and various Buddhist deities and narratives. - Statement II: The tradition of Buddhist art, including mural painting in cave monasteries, spread from India along the Silk Road to Central Asia and beyond. Sites like Bamiyan (Afghanistan, though most famous for colossal statues, also had murals), Dunhuang (China), Miran, Bezeklik, and Kizil (Xinjiang, China) contain numerous Buddhist cave complexes with murals that show significant influence from Indian styles and motifs. These monasteries served as important centers of Buddhist learning and art along the ancient trade routes.

  7. Early Buddhist sculptors did not show Buddha in human form. Through which of the following symbols was Buddha's presence shown by the early sculptors?

    Asked in: UPSC NDA 1 2022

    1. Empty Seat and Stupa only
    2. Wheel and Tree only
    3. Wheel, Tree and Stupa only
    4. Empty Seat, Wheel, Tree and Stupa
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Empty Seat, Wheel, Tree and Stupa

    In early Buddhist art (before the emergence of iconic Buddha images in schools like Gandhara and Mathura), the presence of the Buddha was represented through symbols. These symbols were visual metaphors for key events in his life or his teachings. Common symbols included: the Empty Seat (representing his meditation and enlightenment or his absence after Parinirvana), the Wheel of Dharma (Dharmachakra, symbolizing his first sermon), the Bodhi Tree (representing his enlightenment), footprints of the Buddha, and the Stupa (symbolizing his Mahaparinirvana or final liberation).

Buddhist Councils and their Significance

  1. After the Mahaparinirvana of Lord Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held at

    Asked in: BPSC Prelims Exam 64th

    1. Rajgriha (Rajgir)
    2. Gaya
    3. Pataliputra
    4. Vaishali
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Rajgriha (Rajgir)

    The primary purpose of the first council was to collect and codify the Buddha's teachings (Sutta Pitaka) and monastic discipline (Vinaya Pitaka).

  2. Which of the following rulers convened the Fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir?

    Asked in: BPSC Prelims Exam 66th

    1. Ashoka
    2. Ajatashatru
    3. Kanishka
    4. Kalashoka
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Kanishka

    The Fourth Buddhist Council was held in Kashmir (most likely at Kundalvana) around the 1st century CE, under the patronage of the Kushan emperor Kanishka. Vasumitra presided over the council, with Asvaghosha as his deputy. This council is significant as it led to the division of Buddhism into two major schools: Mahayana and Hinayana. - Ashoka convened the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra. - Ajatashatru convened the First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha. - Kalashoka convened the Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali.

  3. Who was the President of the First Buddhist Council?

    Asked in: BPSC Prelims Exam 67th Cancelled

    1. Vasumitra
    2. Mahakashyapa
    3. Sangharaksha
    4. Parshvaka
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Mahakashyapa

    Mahakashyapa presided over the First Buddhist Council held at Rajagriha immediately after the Buddha's death.

  4. Where was the first Buddhist Council convened?

    Asked in: BPSC Prelims Exam 67th Re Exam

    1. Rajagriha
    2. Amaravati
    3. Kanganhalli
    4. Pataliputra
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Rajagriha

    The first Buddhist Council was held in 483 BCE at Saptaparni cave in Rajagriha (modern Rajgir) immediately after the Mahaparinirvana of the Buddha.

  5. Which of the following statements are correct regarding Buddhist Councils? 1. First Buddhist Council was held in the Saptaparni cave at Rajgriha in 483 BC. 2. Second Buddhist Council at Ujjain in 383 BC. 3. Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra under the patronage of Ashoka in 250 BC. 4. Fourth council at Kashmir under the patronage of Kanishka in AD 72.

    Asked in: GPSC Prelims CSP 1 2022

    1. 1, 2, 3 and 4
    2. 2, 3 and 4 only
    3. 1 and 3 only
    4. 1, 3 and 4 only
    Show answer

    Answer: D. 1, 3 and 4 only

    Statement 1: The First Buddhist Council was held shortly after the Mahaparinirvana of the Buddha (traditionally 483 BC) at the Saptaparni Cave near Rajgriha, under the patronage of King Ajatashatru and presided over by Mahakassapa. Its purpose was to compile the Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka. Statement 2: The Second Buddhist Council was held approximately 100 years after the first (traditionally 383 BC) at Vaishali, not Ujjain. It was convened to address disputes over the Vinaya rules practiced by some monks. Statement 3: The Third Buddhist Council was convened at Pataliputra during the reign of Emperor Ashoka (traditionally around 250 BC), presided over by Moggaliputta Tissa. Its aims included purifying the Sangha and compiling the Abhidhamma Pitaka, leading to the dispatch of missionaries to various regions. Statement 4: The Fourth Buddhist Council (referring to the Sarvastivada school council) was held under the patronage of the Kushan emperor Kanishka, traditionally in the 1st century AD (often cited as 72 AD or later), with the location being either Purushapura (Peshawar) or Kundalavana in Kashmir. It was presided over by Vasumitra and aimed at compiling commentaries on the Buddhist scriptures.

  6. Match the names of the four Buddhist Councils given in Column I with the places they were held as given in Column II and provide the correct answer from the options given below : Column I Column II 1. First Council a. Vaishali 2. Second Council b. Rajgir 3. Third Council c. Kundalban 4. Fourth Council d. Pataliputra

    Asked in: HAS Prelims 2019

    1. 1-d, 2-b, 3-c, 4-a
    2. 1-a, 2-c, 3-d, 4-b
    3. 1-b, 2-a, 3-d, 4-c
    4. 1-c, 2-d, 3-b, 4-a
    Show answer

    Answer: C. 1-b, 2-a, 3-d, 4-c

  7. First Buddhist Council: Held at Rajgir (Rajagaha) shortly after the Buddha's Mahaparinirvana to compile his teachings. 2. Second Buddhist Council: Held at Vaishali about a century after the first, primarily to address monastic discipline issues. 3. Third Buddhist Council: Held at Pataliputra under the patronage of Emperor Ashoka to purify the Sangha and compile the Abhidhamma Pitaka. 4. Fourth Buddhist Council: Held at Kundalavana in Kashmir during the reign of Kanishka (Kuṣāṇa empire), where the Sarvastivada texts were compiled. (Note: A Theravada Fourth Council was also held in Sri Lanka). 25. Correctly match the following : Buddhist Councils Presidents (a) First Buddhist Coun‐ (i) Vasumitra cil (b) Second Buddhist (ii) Mahakashyapa Council (c) Third Buddhist Coun‐ (iii) Sabakami cil (d) Fourth Buddhist (iv) Moggaliputta Council Tissa

    Asked in: CGPSC Prelims Exam 2022

    1. (a)-(i), (b)-(ii), (c)-(iii), (d)-(iv)
    2. (a)-(ii), (b)-(iv), (c)-(iii), (d)-(i)
    3. (a)-(ii), (b)-(iii), (c)-(i), (d)-(iv)
    4. (a)-(ii), (b)-(iii), (c)-(iv), (d)-(i)
    Show answer

    Answer: D. (a)-(ii), (b)-(iii), (c)-(iv), (d)-(i)

    The First Buddhist Council was presided over by Mahakashyapa. The Second Buddhist Council was presided over by Sabakami. The Third Buddhist Council was presided over by Moggaliputta Tissa. The Fourth Buddhist Council was presided over by Vasumitra (with Ashvaghosha as Vice-President).

Buddhist Literature: Tripitakas, Jataka Tales, other important texts

  1. Tripitakas are the sacred books of the

    Asked in: BPSC Prelims Exam 63rd

    1. Jains
    2. Hindus
    3. Parsees
    4. Buddhists
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Buddhists

    - Tripitakas means "Three Baskets". - They are the primary canonical scriptures of Buddhism.

  2. Which of the following statements is / are true ? Faxian's Gaoseng Faxian Zhuan was the earliest first-hand Chinese account of Buddhist sites and practices in India Faxian was only 25 years old at the time of writing the text Faxian's main aim in coming to India was to obtain and take back texts containing monastic rules Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Asked in: UPSC CDS 1 2016

    1. 1, 2 and 3
    2. 2 only
    3. 1 and 3 only
    4. 3 only
    Show answer

    Answer: C. 1 and 3 only

    Statement 1: Faxian's work, "A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms" (Foguo Ji), is considered one of the earliest and most valuable first-hand accounts by a Chinese traveler of Buddhist sites, practices, and conditions in India and Sri Lanka from his travels in the early 5th century CE. This statement is true. Statement 2: Faxian undertook his journey to India at an advanced age, seeking authentic Buddhist scriptures. Historical accounts suggest he was quite old, possibly in his sixties, when he began the perilous journey, and was over 80 when he returned and completed his work. The statement that he was only 25 is false. Statement 3: Faxian's primary motivation for traveling to India was to obtain Vinaya texts (monastic rules), as he found the versions available in China incomplete or corrupt. He also sought other scriptures like Sutras and Abhidharma. This statement is true.

  3. Which Buddhist text contains an account of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka?

    Asked in: UPSC CDS 1 2018

    1. Vinaya Pitaka
    2. Sutta Pitaka
    3. Abhidhamma Pitaka
    4. Mahavamsa
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Mahavamsa

    The Mahavamsa is an important historical chronicle written in Pali, originating from Sri Lanka. It provides a detailed account of the history of Buddhism and the dynasties of Sri Lanka. Crucially, it includes extensive information about Emperor Ashoka, his conversion to Buddhism, his efforts in spreading the faith, and his role in sending missionaries, including his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta, to Sri Lanka.

  4. The story Gandatindu Jataka was written in which language?

    Asked in: UPSC CDS 2 2018

    1. Sanskrit
    2. Telugu
    3. Tamil
    4. Pali
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Pali

    Jataka tales recount stories of the previous lives of the Buddha, in both human and animal form. They are part of the Khuddaka Nikaya, a collection within the Sutta Pitaka of the Pali Canon.

  5. The dialogue on Varna between king Avantiputta and Kachchana, a disciple of Buddha, appears in which one of the following Buddhist texts?

    Asked in: UPSC CDS 2 2018

    1. Majjhima Nikaya
    2. Samyutta Nikaya
    3. Anguttara Nikaya
    4. Ambattha Sutta
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Majjhima Nikaya

    The Madhura Sutta records a discussion where Maha Kachchana argues against the inherent superiority of the Brahmin varna and asserts that varna distinctions are not based on birth but on actions and moral conduct, using empirical examples to challenge the claims of purity associated with Brahmins.

  6. Which of the following is included in Vinaya Pitaka ?

    Asked in: GPSC Prelims CSP 1 2019

    1. It has speeches about the great truth and stories of female monks.
    2. It has discussions of relationships of men- women.
    3. It has description on the duties of monks and rules of the use of clothes, medicines, vehicles, etc.
    4. There is a dicussion on modesty, burin and observations as well as policy-regulations in it.
    Show answer

    Answer: C. It has description on the duties of monks and rules of the use of clothes, medicines, vehicles, etc.

    The Vinaya Pitaka is one of the three divisions of the Tripitaka, the Buddhist canon. It primarily contains the rules and regulations of the monastic order (Sangha), detailing the conduct expected of monks and nuns, including rules regarding clothing, food, discipline, ceremonies, etc. Option C accurately describes this content.

  7. What is “Prajnaparamita”?

    Asked in: GPSC Prelims CSP 1 2021

    1. Hindu text
    2. Jain text
    3. Islamic text
    4. Buddhist text
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Buddhist text

    - Prajnaparamita refers to a vast collection of Mahayana Buddhist scriptures. - The term literally means "Perfection of Wisdom" in Sanskrit. - These texts discuss the nature of reality, emptiness (shunyata), and the path to enlightenment through wisdom.

Causes for the Rise of Buddhism in India

  1. Which of the following statements are true about Buddhism? 1. Buddhism denied the authority of Vedas 2. Buddha's teachings were largely based on Brahmanic ideas of Punarjanma, Karma and Moksha 3. Buddhism was not practical and ethical 4. Buddhism accepts God as creator

    Asked in: TNPSC CS Prelims 2022

    1. 1, 2, 3 are correct
    2. 1 and 2 are correct
    3. Only 2 is correct
    4. 3 and 4 are correct
    Show answer

    Answer: B. 1 and 2 are correct

    - Key differences between Buddhism and Brahmanism include the rejection of Vedic authority, the caste system, and animal sacrifices by Buddhism. - Concepts like Samsara (cycle of rebirth), Karma, and the goal of liberation from this cycle were shared ideas in the Indian intellectual milieu, adopted and reinterpreted by Buddhism. - The Buddhist path to liberation (Nirvana) differs from the Brahmanical concept of Moksha or union with Brahman. - The Eightfold Path provides a practical guide for ethical conduct, mental discipline, and wisdom. - The focus in Buddhism is on self-reliance for achieving liberation through understanding the nature of reality and following the path, rather than reliance on a creator deity.

  2. Which of the following were common to both Buddhism and Jainism? I. Avoidance of extremities of penance and enjoyment. II. Indifference to the authority of the Vedas III. Denial of efficacy of rituals IV. Non-injury to animal life Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    Asked in: UPPCS Prelims 1996

    1. I, II, III and IV
    2. II, III and IV
    3. I, III and IV
    4. I and II
    Show answer

    Answer: B. II, III and IV

    - I. Avoidance of extremities of penance and enjoyment: This is a core tenet of Buddhism (the Middle Path), but Jainism emphasizes strict asceticism and penance, thus this statement is not common to both. - II. Indifference to the authority of the Vedas: Both Buddhism and Jainism arose as heterodox schools challenging the supremacy of the Vedic texts and the Brahminical religious order. This is common. - III. Denial of efficacy of rituals: Both religions rejected the complex and often costly rituals and sacrifices central to the Vedic tradition, advocating for a path based on personal conduct and ethics instead. This is common. - IV. Non-injury to animal life (Ahimsa): Ahimsa (non-violence) is a fundamental principle in both religions. Jainism took this principle to a much stricter degree than Buddhism, but the principle itself was common and central to their ethics.

Early Buddhist Sangha and its Structure

  1. Who among the following were referred to as the 'Theris' in ancient India?

    Asked in: UPSC CDS 1 2023

    1. Respected women
    2. Elder nuns in Buddhism
    3. Women denied the Bhikkhuni status
    4. Women expelled from the Buddhist Sangha
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Elder nuns in Buddhism

    In ancient Indian Buddhism, the term 'Theri' (Pali) or 'Sthavira' (Sanskrit) referred to an elder or respected member of the monastic community. Specifically, 'Theri' was used for senior nuns who had achieved a certain level of spiritual development and seniority within the Bhikkhuni Sangha (the order of Buddhist nuns). The Therigatha, a collection of verses by early Buddhist nuns, provides insights into the lives and experiences of these 'Theris'.

  2. According to Buddhist texts, who was the first woman to enter Sangha and ordained as "bhikkhuni" ?

    Asked in: PPSC CS Prelims 2013

    1. Mahamaya Mayadevi
    2. Mahapajapati Gotami
    3. Mahadevi Yashodhara
    4. Shailbhanjika Anandi
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Mahapajapati Gotami

    Mahapajapati Gotami was the maternal aunt and foster mother of Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha. After the death of the Buddha's father, she approached the Buddha and requested permission for women to join the Sangha. Initially, the Buddha was hesitant, but upon the intercession of his disciple Ananda, he agreed to the establishment of the order of nuns (Bhikkhuni Sangha), provided they accept certain rules (the eight Garudhammas). Mahapajapati Gotami was the first woman to be ordained as a bhikkhuni.

  3. The Buddhist Sangha was an organization of monks

    Asked in: UPSC CAPF 2013

    1. who became teachers of Dhamma
    2. that helped the spread of education
    3. to help the integration of the State
    4. to provide relief to the poor in times of dis‐ tress
    Show answer

    Answer: A. who became teachers of Dhamma

    - The Sangha is the Buddhist monastic community. - Its members are monks and nuns. - A core function is the study, practice, and teaching of the Dhamma.

  4. The entry of woman as a bhikshuni into the Buddhist Sangha was allowed by Gautam Buddha at

    Asked in: UPPCS Prelims 2010

    1. Sravasti
    2. Vaisali
    3. Rajagriha
    4. Kushinagar
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Vaisali

    This question relates to a significant event in the early history of Buddhism concerning the status of women within the religious order.

  5. In ancient Indian Buddhist monasteries, a ceremony called Pavarana used to be held. It was the

    Asked in: UPPCS Prelims 2002

    1. occasion to elect the Sanghaparinayaka and two speakers one on Dhamma and the other on Vinaya
    2. confession by monks of their offences com‐ mitted during their stay in the monasteries during the rainy season
    3. ceremony of initiation of new person into the Buddhist Sangha in which the head is shaved an when yellow robes are offered
    4. gathering of Buddhist monks on the next day to the full moon day of Ashadha when they take up affixed abode for the next four months or rainy season
    Show answer

    Answer: B. confession by monks of their offences com‐ mitted during their stay in the monasteries during the rainy season

    Pavarana marks the end of the rainy season retreat (Vassa) and involves mutual confession of monastic offenses by monks.

  6. Consider the following pairs in the context of Buddhism : A. Uposath - After the monk renounces his home, he begins the nomadic life under the guidance of Buddhist teacher. B. Upasaka - Male lay followers of Buddhism C. Upsampada - The occasion for a monk to take permanent membership in the Buddhist Sangha. Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched ? , C - Question not attempted

    Asked in: Asst. Engineer Comb. Comp. Exam (Pre) 2024

    1. A, B
    2. A, C
    3. B, C
    4. A, B, C
    Show answer

    Answer: C. B, C

    Buddhist terminology for monastic life and lay followers. Understanding these terms is crucial for comprehending Buddhist practices and social structure.

Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path

  1. According to Buddhist Philosophy, the cause of Sanskar (impressions) is

    Asked in: CGPSC Prelims Exam 2024

    1. Vigyan (Consciousness)
    2. Vedana (Sense-Experience)
    3. Avidya (Ignorance)
    4. None of the above
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Avidya (Ignorance)

    cgpsc 2025-2025 - Dependent Origination is a central concept in Buddhism explaining the cause of suffering and rebirth. - The chain of twelve links starts with Avidyā (Ignorance). - Saṃskāra (Sanskar) is the second link, arising from Avidyā. - Vijñāna (Consciousness) arises from Saṃskāra, and Vedanā (Sense-Experience) arises further down the chain from Sparśa (Contact).

  2. The 'Four Nobel Truths' are propounded by Buddha are centred upon

    Asked in: GPSC Prelims CSP 1 2017

    1. Suffering and its extinction
    2. Right Action
    3. Ultimate reality
    4. Salvation
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Suffering and its extinction

    The entire framework of Buddhist philosophy and practice stems from the understanding and application of the Four Noble Truths, aiming at overcoming suffering and achieving Nirvana.

  3. According to Buddhism, origins of rebirth lie in __________.

    Asked in: GPSC Prelims CSP 1 2021

    1. Ignorance (Avijja)
    2. Craving (Tanha)
    3. Attachment (Upadana)
    4. Suffering (Dukkha)
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Craving (Tanha)

    According to Buddhist philosophy, particularly the Four Noble Truths, the origin of suffering (Dukkha) and subsequent rebirth (Samsara) is craving or desire (Tanha). Tanha encompasses desires for sensual pleasure, existence, and non- existence.

  4. Who has propounded the doctrine of momentariness ?

    Asked in: CGPSC Prelims Exam 2017

    1. Buddha
    2. Jaina
    3. Charvaka
    4. Nyaya
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Buddha

    The doctrine of momentariness (Kshanika Vada) is a key tenet of Buddhist philosophy, particularly elaborated in later Buddhist schools. It stems from the core Buddhist teaching of impermanence (Anicca) and posits that all conditioned phenomena (dharmas) arise and perish in discrete moments.

  5. Anātma-vada (no-self) is the doctrine of

    Asked in: CGPSC Prelims Exam 2017

    1. Sānkhya
    2. Vedanta
    3. Buddhism
    4. Jainism
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Buddhism

    Anātma-vada (or Anatta in Pali) means "no- self" or "non-soul". It is a fundamental doctrine of Buddhism which denies the existence of a permanent, unchanging, independent self or soul (Atman) that exists independently of the physical and mental aggregates (Skandhas).

  6. Which book explains the four noble truths of Buddhism?

    Asked in: TNPSC CS Prelims 2021

    1. Nettiprakarana
    2. Petakopadesa
    3. Buddhadatta
    4. Ananda
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Nettiprakarana

    The Four Noble Truths (Dukkha, Samudaya, Nirodha, Magga) are fundamental doctrines of Buddhism. While they are originally explained in the Buddha's first sermon (Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta), later texts within the Buddhist canon and its commentaries elaborate on them. The Nettiprakarana is a guide to the Buddha's teachings, included in some editions of the Theravada Pāli Canon (Khuddaka Nikāya), providing systematic methods for interpreting and applying the Dharma, including the Four Noble Truths.

  7. Choose the correct answer from the codes given below : (a) Assertion : The Asoka Chakra found in our National flag consists of twenty four spokes. They are in blue colours. (b) Reason : The twenty four spokes denotes the eight fold path of Lord Buddha.

    Asked in: TNPSC CS Prelims 2014

    1. Both (a) and (b) are correct
    2. (a) is correct, (b) is wrong
    3. (a) is partly correct, (b) is wrong
    4. (a) is partly correct and (b) is also correct
    Show answer

    Answer: B. (a) is correct, (b) is wrong

    - The Ashoka Chakra has 24 spokes and is navy blue. (Assertion True) - The 24 spokes do not represent the eight-fold path of Buddha. (Reason False)

Key Buddhist Thinkers and Philosophers (e.g., Nagarjuna, Asanga)

  1. With reference to Buddhist Bodhisattva, who among the following is Bodhisattva of wisdom?

    Asked in: KPSC KAS Prelims 2024

    1. Manjusri
    2. Avalokitesvara
    3. Maitreya
    4. Vajrapani
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Manjusri

    - A) Manjusri (Mañjuśrī) is the Bodhisattva associated with transcendent wisdom (prajñā). He is often depicted holding a sword with which he cuts through ignorance and illusion, and a volume of the Prajnaparamita Sutra (Perfection of Wisdom Sutra). - B) Avalokitesvara is the Bodhisattva of Compassion (Karuna). - C) Maitreya is the future Buddha who will appear on Earth. - D) Vajrapani is the Bodhisattva representing the power of the Buddha, often associated with skillful means (Upaya).

  2. 'Milind Panho' is in the form of a dialogue between King Milind and Buddhist Saint. The concerned saint was -

    Asked in: UPPCS Prelims 2023

    1. Nagarjun
    2. Kumaril Bhatt
    3. Nagbhatt
    4. Nagasena
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Nagasena

    - The text is a dialogue between King Milinda and the Buddhist saint Nagasena. - It is considered an important text in the Theravada Buddhist tradition.

  3. Madhyamika Karika, the basic text of Madhyamika School, was composed by

    Asked in: UPSC CAPF 2021

    1. Nagarjuna
    2. Asanga
    3. Vasubandhu
    4. Dharmakirti
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Nagarjuna

    - Nagarjuna's philosophy is based on the concept of shunyata (emptiness), arguing that phenomena are empty of inherent existence (svabhava). - The Madhyamika school is known as the "Middle Way" because it avoids the extremes of asserting existence or non-existence of phenomena. - Asanga and Vasubandhu were prominent figures of the Yogacara school of Mahayana Buddhism, which focused on the nature of consciousness. - Dharmakirti was a major Buddhist philosopher of the 7th century CE, primarily known for his work on Buddhist logic (Pramana).

  4. 'Nagananda', a play written by Emperor Harshavardhan, is about which Bodhisattva?

    Asked in: Forest Range Officer Exam 2021

    1. Manjushri
    2. Jimutavahana
    3. Vajrapani
    4. Avalokiteshvara
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Jimutavahana

    The play 'Nagananda' by Harshavardhan is about the Bodhisattva Jimutavahana.

Life and Teachings of Gautama Buddha

  1. Consider the following pairs : (i) Lumbini : Birth (ii) Sarnath : Dharmachakrapravartana (iii) Kushinagar : The Enlightenment (iv) Benaras : The Miracles Select the correctly matched pairs using the codes given below.

    Asked in: APSC CCE Prelims Exam 2023

    1. (i) and (iv) only
    2. (i) and (ii) only
    3. (ii) and (iii) only
    4. (i), (ii), and (iii) only
    Show answer

    Answer: B. (i) and (ii) only

    Key sites associated with Buddha's life include Lumbini (Birth), Bodh Gaya (Enlightenment), Sarnath (First Sermon), and Kushinagar (Mahaparinirvana). These are collectively known as the four most important pilgrimage sites.

  2. Who had attained enlightenment in Bodh Gaya?

    Asked in: BPSC Prelims Exam 67th Cancelled

    1. Mahavira Swami
    2. Gautama Buddha
    3. Simandhar Swami
    4. Parshvanath Swami
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Gautama Buddha

    Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, attained Bodhi (enlightenment) under the Bodhi Tree in Bodh Gaya. This event is considered the turning point in his life, after which he became known as the Buddha ('the awakened one').

  3. Who was by the side of the Buddha when he achieved Mahaparinirvana ?

    Asked in: GPSC Prelims CSP 1 2017

    1. Moggaliputta Tissa
    2. Ananda
    3. Upali
    4. Anthapindada
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Ananda

    - Ananda was one of the principal disciples of the Buddha and achieved Arhatship after the Buddha's Mahaparinirvana. - Moggaliputta Tissa was a prominent Buddhist monk who presided over the Third Buddhist Council during the reign of Ashoka. - Upali was another principal disciple of the Buddha, known for his expertise in monastic rules (Vinaya), and recited the Vinaya Pitaka at the First Council. - Anthapindada (or Anathapindika) was a wealthy merchant disciple known for his immense generosity to the Buddhist Sangha, particularly for donating the Jetavana monastery.

  4. In Buddhist terminology, the word "Paramachakra Pravartana" indicates ______.

    Asked in: GPSC Prelims CSP 1 2019

    1. The first Sermon by Buddha
    2. The Attainment of Niravana by Buddha
    3. The personal religion of Ashoka
    4. None of the above
    Show answer

    Answer: A. The first Sermon by Buddha

    The standard Buddhist term for the first sermon given by Gautama Buddha after his enlightenment is "Dharmachakra Pravartana Sutra," meaning "Setting in Motion the Wheel of Dharma." This sermon was delivered in Sarnath to his five former companions and outlined the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. While the question uses "Paramachakra Pravartana," likely a variant or less common phrasing, it strongly suggests this pivotal event.

  5. Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding "Mahabhinishkramana"? 1. The renunciation of worldly life by Mahavira 2. Rejection of the authority of the Vedas 3. The renunciation of the worldly life by Buddha 4. Eightfold path of Buddha

    Asked in: GPSC Prelims CSP 1 2019

    1. 3 only
    2. 1 and 3 only
    3. 3 and 4 only
    4. 2, 3 and 4 only
    Show answer

    Answer: A. 3 only

    "Mahabhinishkramana" is a technical term in Buddhism referring to a pivotal event in the life of Siddhartha Gautama.

  6. Gautam Buddha delivered his first sermon at which one of the following places?

    Asked in: GPSC Prelims CSP 1 2023

    1. Sarnath
    2. Kushinagar
    3. Lumbini
    4. Bodh Gaya
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Sarnath

    Sarnath is one of the most important pilgrimage sites for Buddhists, marking the beginning of the Buddha's public teachings and the formation of the Sangha (monastic community).

  7. Where did Lord Buddha breath his last (Mahaparinirvan)?

    Asked in: GPSC Prelims CSP 1 2023

    1. Kushinagar
    2. Bodh Gaya
    3. Rajgir
    4. Sarnath
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Kushinagar

    - Lord Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama) attained Mahaparinirvana (his physical death and final liberation) in Kushinagar, located in modern-day Uttar Pradesh, India. - Bodh Gaya (Bihar) is the place where he attained enlightenment (Bodhi). - Rajgir (Bihar) was the capital of the Magadha kingdom during Buddha's time. He delivered many important sermons here, including those at Gridhakuta hill. The first Buddhist Council was also held here after his death. - Sarnath (near Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh) is where he gave his first sermon (Dharma Chakra Pravartana) after attaining enlightenment, marking the beginning of the Buddhist Sangha.

Major Ancient Buddhist Sites and their importance

  1. The Buddhist monks of which monastery wrote letters to Hiuen-tsang after he had reached back to China ?

    Asked in: GPSC Prelims CSP 1 2017

    1. Mahabodhi Monastery
    2. Sarnath Monastery
    3. Sthanavishvara Monastery
    4. Jalandhar Monastery
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Mahabodhi Monastery

    Hiuen-tsang had a close relationship with the Mahabodhi Monastery, which was a major hub of Buddhist learning and pilgrimage, facilitating communication between the monks there and himself even after he returned to China.

  2. Where do we come across the madhavapura mahavihara?

    Asked in: OPSC CS Prelims 2022

    1. Ratnagiri
    2. Udayagiri
    3. Lalitagiri
    4. Pushpagiri
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Udayagiri

    - Udayagiri is a major Buddhist archaeological site in Odisha. - Inscriptions at Udayagiri identify specific monasteries. - Madhavapura Mahavihara is identified with a monastery complex at Udayagiri.

  3. With reference to Buddhist history, tradition and culture in India, consider the following pairs : Famous shrine Location 1. Tabo monastery and temple complex : Spiti Valley 2. Lhotsava Lhakang temple, Nako : Zanskar Valley 3. Alchi temple complex : Ladakh Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

    Asked in: UPSC IAS 2014

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 and 3 only
    3. 1 and 3 only
    4. 1, 2 and 3
    Show answer

    Answer: C. 1 and 3 only

    - Tabo Monastery is one of the oldest Buddhist sites in the Himalayas, founded in 996 CE. - Alchi Monastery is known for its unique artistic style which differs from others in Ladakh. - Both Spiti and Ladakh are regions with significant Buddhist populations and ancient monasteries.

  4. In which one of the following regions was Dhanyakataka, which flourished as a prominent Buddhist centre under the Mahasanghikas, located?

    Asked in: UPSC IAS 2023

    1. Andhra
    2. Gandhara
    3. Kalinga
    4. Magadha
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Andhra

    Dhanyakataka, also known as Amaravati, was a prominent city and a significant Buddhist center located in the Andhra region of ancient India. It flourished under the patronage of the Satavahanas and later the Ikshvakus and was associated with the Mahasanghika school of Buddhism, known for its famous stupa.

  5. Who among the following did not contribute to the preservation and documentation of the ancient site of Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh ?

    Asked in: UPSC CISF AC EXE 2023

    1. Shahjahan Begum
    2. John Marshall
    3. Sultan Jehan Begum
    4. J.M. Kenoyer
    Show answer

    Answer: D. J.M. Kenoyer

    - Sanchi was preserved from significant damage partly due to the efforts of the Begums of Bhopal. - John Marshall's archaeological work was vital for the scientific study and conservation of Sanchi. - Different archaeologists specialize in different periods and sites; J.M. Kenoyer's expertise lies primarily with the Indus Valley Civilization.

  6. Which of the following sacred Buddhist place was situated on the river Niranjana ?

    Asked in: UPPCS Prelims 2012

    1. Bodh Gaya
    2. Kusinagara
    3. Lumbini
    4. Rishipattana
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Bodh Gaya

    The Niranjana river is considered sacred in Buddhism as it is linked to the Buddha's path to enlightenment.

  7. Ashokaram monastery was situated at

    Asked in: UPPSC Upper Mains 2015

    1. Vaishali
    2. Patliputra
    3. Kausambi
    4. Shravasti
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Patliputra

    The Ashokaram monastery (or Ashokarama) is a historical Buddhist monastery believed to have been built by Emperor Ashoka the Great. Historical sources and accounts place it in or near Pataliputra (modern Patna), the capital of the Mauryan Empire.

Major Schools of Buddhism: Hinayana, Mahayana, Vajrayana (origins and characteristics)

  1. Which of the following is the Nastika school of thought ?

    Asked in: CGPSC Prelims Exam 2023

    1. Sankhya
    2. Yoga
    3. Nyaya
    4. Bauddha
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Bauddha

    The Astika/Nastika classification in Indian philosophy hinges on the acceptance (Astika) or rejection (Nastika) of the authority of the Vedas.

  2. Kalchakra ceremony is associated with which of the following religion?

    Asked in: GPSC Prelims CSP 1 2024

    1. Hinduism
    2. Buddhism
    3. Jainism
    4. Islam
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Buddhism

    Kalachakra, meaning "Wheel of Time," is a term used in Vajrayana Buddhism, referring both to a tantric deity (ishtadevata) and to a complex system of teachings and practice. The Kalachakra Tantra is one of the major tantric texts and is particularly associated with Tibetan Buddhism. The large public initiations given by the Dalai Lama are widely known as Kalachakra ceremonies.

  3. Identify the features that distinguish Mahayana from Hinayana Buddhism from the following list : 1. Buddha statues 2. Stupas 3. Chaityas 4. Sanskrit texts Select the correct statement(s) using the codes given below :

    Asked in: KPSC KAS Prelims 2014

    1. 1, 2, 3 and 4
    2. 1 and 4
    3. 1, 3 and 4
    4. 1 only
    Show answer

    Answer: B. 1 and 4

    Mahayana Buddhism places greater emphasis on the Boddhisattva ideal, universal salvation, and devotion to the Buddha and other bodhisattvas. It developed a rich tradition of iconography, leading to the widespread use of Buddha statues and images for worship. Its scriptural canon is predominantly in Sanskrit.

  4. Consider the following statements about Buddhism.

    Asked in: OPSC CS Prelims 2022

    1. 2, 3 and 4
    2. 1, 2 and 3
    3. Only 3 and 4
    4. All are correct
    Show answer

    Answer: B. 1, 2 and 3

    It was patronized by the Pala kings. Buddha was worshipped as a God in Mahayana Buddhism. Hinayana considers Buddha as an ordinary being who attained Nirvana. Vajrayana focused on Hindu Practices. Which of the following are correct? The Pala dynasty of Bengal and Bihar were strong patrons of Buddhism, establishing prominent monasteries. Mahayana Buddhism developed the concept of Buddha as a divine or transcendental being, leading to his worship. Hinayana (or Theravada) tradition views Buddha as a historical figure and a human who attained enlightenment through his own efforts, serving as a guide and teacher.

  5. The significant difference between Mahayana and Hinayana forms of Buddhism lay in that

    Asked in: UPSC CAPF 2013

    1. Mahayana allowed for the transference of merit while in Hinayana, a person would only help another by example and advice
    2. Mahayana believed in the Bodhisattvas while Hinayana did not
    3. Hinayana promoted the ideas of a suffering sa‐ viour
    4. Mahayana propounded the idea of the 'Arhant', the 'worthy'
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Mahayana allowed for the transference of merit while in Hinayana, a person would only help another by example and advice

    - Mahayana emphasizes the Bodhisattva ideal and universal salvation. - Hinayana emphasizes the Arhant ideal and individual liberation. - Mahayana allows for the transference of merit to others. - Hinayana/Theravada focuses on individual accumulation of merit and helping others primarily through teaching/example.

  6. Which of the following statements about Bodhisattvas is/are correct? 1. They were perceived as deeply compassionate beings who accumulated merit through their efforts. 2. They made attempt to attain Nibbana. Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Asked in: UPSC CAPF 2018

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Both 1 and 2

    Statement 1: They were perceived as deeply compassionate beings who accumulated merit through their efforts. This statement is correct and accurately describes a core aspect of the Bodhisattva concept in Mahayana Buddhism. Bodhisattvas are characterized by immense compassion (karuṇā) and work diligently to accumulate merit (puṇya) and wisdom (prajñā) to help others. Statement 2: They made attempt to attain Nibbana. This statement is also considered correct. The ultimate goal of a Bodhisattva is to become a Buddha. Buddhahood is a state of complete enlightenment and liberation, which includes the attainment of Nibbana (Nirvana). While Bodhisattvas vow to postpone their own final Nibbana until all beings are liberated, their path is inherently one towards achieving the state of perfect liberation (Buddhahood), which encompasses Nibbana. They are working towards the state of Nibbana, not just for themselves, but for the benefit of all.

  7. With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements: 1. The concept of Bodhisattva is central to Hinayana sect of Buddhism. 2. Bodhisattva is a compassionate one on his way to enlightenment. 3. Bodhisattva delays achieving his own salvation to help all sentient beings on their path to it.

    Asked in: UPSC IAS 2016

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 and 3 only
    3. 2 only
    4. 1, 2 and 3
    Show answer

    Answer: B. 2 and 3 only

    The Bodhisattva ideal, characterized by compassion and the vow to save all beings, is a cornerstone of Mahayana Buddhism.

Patronage and Spread of Buddhism (e.g., Ashoka, Kanishka)

  1. Consider the following statements: 1. According to Mahavamsa, Ashoka turned to the Buddha's dhamma when his nephew Nigrodha preached the doctrine to him. 2. Divyavadana ascribes Ashoka being drawn to the Buddha's teaching to the influence of Samudra, a merchant-turned monk. 3. Dipavamsa speaks of Samudra, the 12- year-old son of a merchant, as the key figure in Ashoka's coming under the influence of the Buddhist dhamma. Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?

    Asked in: UPSC CDS 2 2019

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. 1 and 2
    4. 1 and 3
    Show answer

    Answer: A. 1 only

    Ancient Buddhist texts like Mahavamsa, Dipavamsa, and Divyavadana offer varying accounts of historical events, including the circumstances of Ashoka's conversion or increased devotion to Buddhism.

  2. Which one of the following rulers did not contribute towards the expansion of Buddhism ?

    Asked in: CGPSC Prelims Exam 2018

    1. Harshavardhan
    2. Kanishka
    3. Ashoka
    4. Pushyamitra Shunga
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Pushyamitra Shunga

    Pushyamitra Shunga was the founder of the Shunga dynasty, which came to power after overthrowing the Mauryan dynasty. Buddhist texts like the Ashokavadana allege that he was a persecutor of Buddhists and destroyed stupas. While the extent of his persecution is debated by historians, he is not known for supporting or expanding Buddhism.

  3. Budha is depicted on the coins of

    Asked in: UPPCS Prelims 2010

    1. Wima Kadphises
    2. Kanishka
    3. Nahapana
    4. Budh Gupta
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Kanishka

    This question asks which ancient Indian ruler depicted the Buddha on their coins, indicating a connection to Buddhism and the period when such iconography became prevalent.

  4. That Lumbini was the birth place of Gautama Buddha, is confirmed by an inscription of—

    Asked in: UPPCS Prelims 2011

    1. Asoka
    2. Kanishka
    3. Harsha
    4. Dharmapala
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Asoka

    Asoka visited Lumbini in the 20th year of his reign and commemorated the visit with an inscription on the Rummindei pillar. The inscription states, "Here the Buddha, the sage of the Shakyas, was born." He also granted tax exemption to the village of Lumbini.

  5. Which ancient Indian ruler was the Chief Patron of the fourth Buddhist Council?

    Asked in: WBCS Main Paper 3 2023

    1. Ashoka
    2. Kanishka
    3. Ajatashatru
    4. Samudragupta
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Kanishka

    The council is traditionally believed to have codified the Sarvastivada doctrines and led to the formal division of Buddhism into Mahayana and Hinayana schools according to some traditions.

  6. Which one of the following (Religious missionaries – Place) is not matched? - (5) Question not attempted

    Asked in: Archaeology and Museums Dept. Exam 2023 (Curator) 2023

    1. Mahadev -Mahishamaṇḍal
    2. Rakkhita -Suvarnabhumi
    3. Majjhima -Himvant
    4. Dhammarakkhita –Aparantaka
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Majjhima -Himvant

    According to Buddhist traditions, various missionaries were sent to different regions to spread the Dhamma. Mahadeva was sent to Mahishamaṇḍal. Rakkhita was sent to Suvarnabhumi (Lower Burma). Dhammarakkhita was sent to Aparantaka (Western India). Majjhima, however, was sent to Himavantapatha (the region at the foot of the Himalayas), not Himvant which is a broader term for the Himalayan region. While related, "Himvantapatha" is a more specific designation.

  7. The famous ancient Indian ruler who embraced Buddhism and promoted its spread was

    Asked in: ae 2024

    1. Ashurbanipal
    2. Harsha
    3. Chandragupta Maurya
    4. Asoka
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Asoka

    Emperor Asoka is the ancient Indian ruler most famously associated with embracing Buddhism and actively promoting its spread.

Social and Cultural Impact of Buddhism on Indian Society

  1. There are similarities as well as differences between the Buddhist and Jain religions. Choose (Identify) the differences between the two religions.

    Asked in: GPSC Prelims CSP 1 2018

    1. Atheist
    2. Simple Lifestyle | Good Conduct
    3. Work-oriented
    4. Non-existence of Atma (Soul)
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Non-existence of Atma (Soul)

    - A core difference lies in the concept of the self/ soul. - Jainism believes in an eternal soul (Jiva). - Buddhism teaches the doctrine of non-self (Anatta).

  2. Which of the following statements is incorrect about the position of women during the age of Buddha?

    Asked in: WBCS Main Paper 3 2021

    1. The position of women generally deteriorated.
    2. There were several instances of child mar‐ riages.
    3. Polygamy was gradually growing among the ruling classed.
    4. Education was denied to women.
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Education was denied to women.

    While the general position of women may have deteriorated compared to the early Vedic period, and practices like child marriage and polygamy were present among certain classes, education was not completely denied to women. Buddhist texts indicate that women could join the Buddhist Sangha as bhikkhunis (nuns), which involved education and religious training.

Triratnas (Three Jewels): Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha

  1. With reference to the cultural history of India, consider the following pairs : 1. Parivrajaka - Renunciant and Wanderer 2. Shramana - Priest with a high status 3. Upasaka - Lay follower of Buddhism Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched ?

    Asked in: UPSC IAS 2020

    1. 1 and 2 only
    2. 1 and 3 only
    3. 2 and 3 only
    4. 1, 2 and 3
    Show answer

    Answer: B. 1 and 3 only

    Parivrajaka refers to wandering ascetics or renunciants who have left their homes and societal ties. Upasaka refers to a lay follower of Buddhism or other Shramana traditions who is not a monk or nun but observes basic precepts. Shramana refers to ascetics and renunciants generally, particularly those who rejected the authority of the Vedas and the Brahmanical system, such as Buddhists, Jains, and Ajivikas. They represent a tradition distinct from the Brahmanical priesthood and are not typically associated with high status within that system.

  2. The "Three Jewels" are to be found in

    1. Vaishnavism
    2. Buddhism
    3. Judaism
    4. Jainism
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Buddhism