Shaiva, Bhagavata Religion is part of Ancient History of India. Below are notes on 15 sub-topics, followed by practice MCQs from State PSC and UPSC papers.

Development of temple architecture and sculptural art related to Shaiva and Bhagavata deities

  • Elephanta Caves (near Mumbai, Maharashtra): Site of significant rock-cut architecture.
  • Elephanta Caves: Primarily known for their grand Shaivite rock-cut temples and monumental sculptures, including the iconic Trimurti (three-faced Shiva).
  • Elephanta Caves: Also contain earlier Buddhist monastic caves, indicating a multireligious past.
  • Shaiva and Bhagavata (Vaishnava) temple architecture: Evolved from early rock-cut shrines to complex structural temples, featuring distinct iconographies and regional styles (Nagara, Dravida, Vesara).

Early philosophical differences and similarities between Shaiva and Bhagavata schools

  • Adi Shankara's philosophy is known as Advaita Vedanta (Non-dualism), positing the ultimate oneness of Atman and Brahman.
  • The Dvaitadvaita philosophy was propounded by Nimbarka.
  • Patronage by Dynasties (North & West India):
    • Pratiharas: Patronized Jainism; the Ghatiyaala inscription records the construction of a Jain temple by ruler Kakkuka.
    • Chauhans (Chahamanas): Some rulers patronized Jainism.
    • Solankis (Chaulukyas of Gujarat): Strong patrons, e.g., Kumarapala, leading to the construction of numerous Jain temples in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
    • Guptas: While predominantly Hindu, some individual patronage existed for Jainism.
  • Mandan Mishra was initially a disciple of Kumaril Bhatta, a prominent philosopher of the Mimamsa school.
  • After his debate with Adi Shankara, Mandan Mishra is traditionally believed to have become Shankara's disciple, adopting the name Sureshwaracharya.

Early Shaiva traditions and the Pashupata sect

  • Early Shaiva Traditions:
    • Evidence of proto-Shiva figure on seals (Indus Valley Civilization).
    • Vedic deity Rudra later identified with Shiva.
  • Pashupata Sect:
    • Considered the oldest known Shaiva ascetic sect.
    • Founder: Lakulisha (also Lakulin), generally placed in the 2nd century CE. Revered as the 28th (or 24th) incarnation of Shiva.
    • Doctrine: Based on the "Pashupata Sutras," emphasizing yoga and austere practices for union with Shiva (Pashupati).
    • Practices: Involved unconventional public behavior (e.g., laughing, singing, smearing ashes) to invite censure (avajñā), aiming to detach from social norms.
    • Key Sources/Evidence for Early Shaiva Traditions & the Pashupata Sect:
      • Ashtadhyayi of Panini (c. 5th-4th BCE): Mentions "Shivabhagavatas," indicating early Shiva worship.
      • Coins of Huvishka (Kushan period): Depict Shiva (Oesho) and his consort Uma, showing early iconic representation of Shiva.
      • Mathura inscription of Chandragupta II (380 CE): Directly mentions a "Maheshvara Acharya" (Shaiva) named Uditacharya and his guru-parampara, providing evidence for a Pashupata lineage.
      • Kadambari of Banabhatta (7th CE): Describes various Shaiva ascetics including Pashupatas and Kapalikas, giving literary context.
      • Maltimadhav of Bhavabhuti (8th CE): Mentions extreme Shaiva sects like Kapalikas and Kalamukhas, which are often related to or offshoots of broader Pashupata traditions.
      • Puranas (e.g., Linga, Vayu Purana): Mention Lakulisha as an incarnation of Shiva.
  • Other Shaiva Sects in Ancient India:
    • Kalamukhas & Kapalikas: More extreme ascetic Shaiva sects, known for specific tantric practices and use of skulls (kapala).
    • Mattamayura: A prominent historical Shaiva monastic order (Siddhanta Shaiva) originating in Central India from the 8th century CE, known for temple construction and royal patronage.
    • Shaiva Siddhanta: A major theological system, particularly influential in South India, focusing on Shiva as the supreme reality.
  • Pashupatinath Temple:
    • Location: Kathmandu, Nepal.
    • River: Situated on the banks of the Bagmati River.

Emergence of the Vasudeva-Krishna cult and the Pancharatra system

  • Vasudeva-Krishna cult originated from the Bhagavata religion.
  • Vasudeva, a hero of the Vrishni clan, later identified with Vishnu and Narayana.
  • Besnagar (Vidisha) Garuda Pillar (c. 2nd Century BCE):
    • Erected by Heliodorus, the Greek ambassador of Indo-Greek King Antialkidas.
    • Dedicated to Vasudeva as Deva-deva (God of Gods).
    • Earliest epigraphic evidence of the Bhagavata cult and a non-Indian's devotion.
  • Indo-Greek King Agathocles (c. 180-165 BCE):
    • Issued coins depicting SamkarshanaBalarama on the obverse and Vasudeva-Krishna on the reverse.
    • Earliest numismatic evidence of the principal deities of the cult.
  • The Pancharatra system is a major theological branch of Vaishnavism, emphasizing Vasudeva's vyuhas (emanations: Vasudeva, Samkarshana, Pradyumna, Aniruddha).

Geographical spread and regional variations of Shaiva and Bhagavata cults

  • Shaiva Cult:
  • Varanasi (Kashi): A pre-eminent center for Shaivism, particularly in North India.
  • Onkareshwar (Madhya Pradesh): A major Shaiva pilgrimage site (Jyotirlinga), anciently known as Mandhata.
  • Geographical Spread (Shaiva): Strong presence across North, Central, and South India, including regional variations like Pashupata (North) and Lingayatism (South).
  • Bhagavata Cult (Vaishnavism):
  • Geographical Spread (Bhagavata): Widespread throughout India, prominent in regions like Mathura, Dwarka (Gujarat), and Puri (Odisha - Jagannath).

Iconography and symbolism in Bhagavata religion (Chakra, Shankha, Gada, Padma, early Avatara depictions)

  • Bhagavata religion primarily focuses on Vishnu, often depicted with four arms holding distinct attributes.
  • Chakra (Sudarshana): Discus, a divine weapon symbolizing cosmic mind, power, and destruction of evil.
  • Shankha (Panchajanya): Conch shell, representing primordial sound (Om), creation, victory, and purification.
  • Gada (Kaumodaki): Mace, symbolizing strength, punishment of evil, and control over time.
  • Padma (Lotus): Representing purity, beauty, creation, divine grace, and spiritual unfolding.
  • Chaturvimsati Murti: Refers to the 24 distinct iconographic forms of Vishnu, identified solely by the specific arrangement or permutation of the four principal attributes (Chakra, Shankha, Gada, Padma) in his four hands.
  • Varaha Avatara (Boar Incarnation): Vishnu's incarnation as a boar, depicted raising the Earth goddess (Prithvi/Bhudevi) from the cosmic ocean, rescuing her from the demon Hiranyaksha.
  • A significant and early sculptural depiction of the Varaha Avatara, showing him lifting Prithvi, is found at the Udaygiri Caves near Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh (Gupta period, 5th century CE).
  • Other early avatara depictions include Matsya (fish), Kurma (tortoise), and Nrisingha (man-lion).

Iconography and symbolism in Shaivism (Linga worship, various forms of Shiva)

  • Shiva's Mount (Vahana): Nandi (the bull).
  • Shiva's Symbol/Weapon: Trishula (trident).
  • Linga Worship: Aniconic representation of Shiva, symbolizing cosmic generative power; often depicted as a phallus (lingam) within a yoni.
  • Mukhalinga: Linga adorned with one or more faces of Shiva (e.g., Eka-mukhi, Chaturmukhi, Pancha-mukhi).
  • Forms of Shiva:
    • Dakshinamurti: Shiva as the supreme/ universal teacher (guru), imparting knowledge; usually depicted facing south.
    • Pashupati: Lord of animals/beasts; an ancient form of Shiva.
    • Nataraja: Cosmic dancer, symbolizing creation, preservation, destruction, illusion, and liberation (Ananda Tandava).
    • Ardhanarishwar: Half male (Shiva) and half female (Parvati/Shakti), representing the union of Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti (nature/energy).
  • Vishnu's Symbol: Chakra (Sudarshana Chakra).
  • Ganesh's Symbol: Pasha (rope or noose).
  • Saraswati's Symbol: Veena.
  • Kamdhenu: Divine wish-fulfilling cow.
  • Kalpavriksha: Divine wish-fulfilling tree.
  • Airawat: Divine white elephant (mount of Indra).
  • Ghateshwar Temple, Badoli: Features various forms of Shiva, including Pashupati.
  • Katarmall Temple: Chief deity worshipped is Sun (Surya).

Interaction and syncretism between Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and other ancient Indian religions

  • Kabir, Nanak, and Raidas were prominent followers of the Nirguna path of Bhakti.
  • Mira Bai was a Saguna Bhakti saint, devoted to Lord Krishna.
  • Ramcharan ji founded the Shahpura branch of the Ramsnehi Sect.
  • Jeen Mata (Sikar, Rajasthan) is a Tantrik Shakti Peeth, known for "Kajal Shikhar" where a continuous flame burns, and a folk legend states Aurangzeb gifted a golden 'Chatra' to her temple.
  • Ramanujacharya, a key proponent of Shri Vaishnava tradition, organized the propagation of his ideas by appointing 74 'Simhasanadhipatis' or Acharyas in South India.
  • Kamadia Panth was founded by Ramdevji.
  • 'Dharma Jahaj', 'Bhakti-Padarath', and 'Nasket Leela' are compositions by Saint Charandas.
  • Ramanuja (Ramanujacharya) is the chief exponent of the Shri Vaishnava Sect and its Visishtadvaita philosophy.
  • Ramananda's preachings significantly raised the status of lower castes and women in society by accepting disciples from all social strata and preaching in vernacular languages.
  • Shankaracharya founded four major Mathas (monasteries) in the four corners of India (Sringeri, Dwarka, Puri, Jyotirmath) to propagate Advaita Vedanta.

Major deities of Bhagavata tradition (Vishnu, Krishna, Balarama, Lakshmi)

  • Vishnu: Principal deity of Bhagavata tradition (Vaishnavism). Main deity of Sri Padmanabha Swamy Temple, Thiruvananthapuram.
  • Krishna: A major deity within the Bhagavata tradition.
  • Balarama: Elder brother of Krishna; often represented in art holding a plough (Halayudha).
  • Lakshmi: Consort of Vishnu, goddess of wealth and prosperity.
  • Alvar Saints: Associated with Vaishnavism, fervent devotees of Vishnu/Krishna.
  • Kama (Kamadeva): Known as Ananga.
  • Bahura Chouth Festival: Celebrated on Bhado Krishna Chaturthi.

Origins of Bhagavata tradition: Vedic Vishnu and Narayana

  • Vedic Vishnu: Minor deity in Rigveda, known for 'three strides' (Trivikrama), benevolent solar aspect.
  • Vedic Narayana: Identified as Purusha (cosmic being) and supreme deity in later Vedic texts (e.g., Satapatha Brahmana).
  • Bhagavata Tradition: Centered on Bhagavan, primarily Vasudeva-Krishna, emphasizing devotion (Bhakti).
  • Syncretism: Vasudeva-Krishna later identified with Vedic Vishnu and Narayana.
  • Prahlad-Hiranyakashyap Legend: First set out in the Vishnu Purana.
  • Bhagavad Gita: Part of the Bhishma Parva of the Mahabharata.
  • Earliest Epigraphic Evidence of Bhagavatism: Garuda column at Besnagar (circa 2nd century BCE), erected by Heliodorus (Greek ambassador), revering Vasudeva as Devadeva.

Origins of Shaivism: Vedic Rudra and Indus Valley connections

  • Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) Roots:
  • "Pashupati Seal" (Mohenjo-Daro): Features a horned, three-faced deity in yogic posture, surrounded by animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, buffalo, deer), interpreted as a proto-Shiva (Lord of Animals, Yogi).
  • Lingam-like objects and ring stones found in IVC sites, suggesting early aniconic or phallic worship.
  • Vedic Rudra:
  • Mentioned in Rigveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda as a fierce, destructive archer god associated with storms, mountains, diseases, and healing.
  • Epithets include Sharva, Bhava, Aghora, and Pashupati (Lord of Animals), the latter linking to the IVC seal.
  • Possesses a dual nature: terrifying (Rudra) and benevolent (Shiva, Shankara).
  • Gradually gains prominence in later Vedic texts, absorbing attributes of local deities.
  • Syncretism & Evolution:
  • Post-Vedic period: Rudra merges with elements of the IVC proto-Shiva and various local deities, forming the composite Shiva.
  • Upanishads (e.g., Shvetashvatara Upanishad): Rudra is explicitly identified with Shiva and recognized as the Supreme Being (Maheshvara).
  • Puranic period: Shiva is fully established as a major deity (Mahadeva), part of the Trimurti, with prominent Lingam worship becoming central to Shaivism.

Patronage by ancient dynasties (e.g., Guptas, Satavahanas)

  • Gupta Dynasty:
    • Primarily adherents of Bhagavata Sampradaya (Vaishnavism).
    • Adopted Vishnu as their chief deity.
    • Many Gupta rulers, including Samudragupta, bore the imperial title 'Param Bhagavat'. The Eran Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta reflects his strong Vaishnava devotion and the establishment of a Vishnu temple.
    • Gupta coins frequently depicted Garuda, Vishnu's mount.
    • Temples dedicated to Vishnu were constructed (e.g., Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh).
  • Satavahana Dynasty:
    • Generally followed Brahmanical religion, encompassing both Vaishnavism and Shaivism, alongside patronizing Buddhism.
    • Performed numerous Vedic sacrifices (e.g., Ashvamedha, Rajasuya), recorded in inscriptions like Naganika's Nanaghat inscription.
    • Evidence of Shaiva worship includes deities like Kartikeya and Shiva.
    • Also patronized Vaishnavism, with worship of Vasudeva-Krishna.

Prominent Shaiva deities and their evolution (Shiva, Parvati, Ganesha, Kartikeya)

  • Shiva (Maheshwara):
    • Vedic precursor: Rudra.
    • Epithets: Pashupati (Lord of animals), Mahayogi (great ascetic), Nataraja (Lord of dance), Nilakantha (bluethroated).
    • Role: Destroyer, transformer, patron of yogis.
    • Key symbols: Lingam (phallic symbol, cosmic pillar), Trishula (trident), crescent moon, Ganga, third eye.
    • Vehicle: Nandi (bull).
  • Parvati (Uma, Gauri):
    • Consort of Shiva, daughter of Himavat (Himalaya).
    • Represents: Shakti (divine energy), fertility, love, domesticity, divine strength.
    • Manifestations include: Sati (her previous incarnation), Durga, Kali.
    • Festivals: Teej (celebrates her reunion with Shiva), Karva Chauth.
  • Ganesha (Ganapati):
    • Son of Shiva and Parvati.
    • Iconography: Elephant head, four arms, large belly, broken tusk.
    • Role: Vighnaharta (remover of obstacles), god of wisdom, intellect, new beginnings.
    • Vehicle: Mooshika (mouse).
    • Gained prominence significantly during the Gupta period; central to the Ganapatya sect.
  • Kartikeya (Skanda, Murugan):
    • Son of Shiva and Parvati (or born from Shiva's seed).
    • Role: God of war, commander of divine armies, youth, valor.
    • Other names: Kumara, Subrahmanya, Shanmukha (six-faced).
    • Vehicle: Peacock (Paravani).
    • Highly revered in South India, especially Tamil Nadu, where he is known as Murugan.

Shaiva Agamas and early philosophical developments

  • Shaiva Agamas are a collection of scriptures forming the basis of Shaivism, focusing on ritual, yoga, philosophy, and tantra.
  • They describe Shiva as the supreme reality, embodying both transcendent (Parashiva) and immanent (Shakti) aspects.
  • Early Shaiva philosophical developments led to various schools, including Kashmir Shaivism.
  • Kashmir Shaivism is a monistic philosophy that considers Shiva as the sole reality, often integrating tantric practices.
  • Lal Ded (Lalleshwari), a 14th-century mystic poet, was a prominent exponent of Kashmir Shaivism, known for her 'Vakhs' (poetic sayings).
  • The Kalika Purana is an Upapurana primarily associated with Shaktism and Tantric traditions, focusing on the worship of the goddess Kali.
  • Shaktism is the tradition that reveres the Divine Mother (Shakti) as the supreme being, often closely linked with Shaiva practices.

The Vyuha doctrine and Avataravad in early Vaishnavism

  • The main teaching of Bhagavad Gita is Nishkāma karma yoga.
  • Usha, Lord Krishna's grand daughter-in-law, popularized the Lasya form of dance known as Garba.
  • Hallisaka dance is significant in the Harivansha Purana; dancers form a circle with joined

7. Sixth century B.C.E - Political Condition

Practice MCQs: Shaiva, Bhagavata Religion

Development of temple architecture and sculptural art related to Shaiva and Bhagavata deities

  1. The ancient monume nts of Elephanta are mostly 1. Buddhist 2. Jain 3. Saivite 4. Vaishnavite Select the correct answer from the code given below— Code :

    Asked in: Assistant Conservator of Forest 2025

    1. 1
    2. 2
    3. 3
    4. 1 and 3
    Show answer

    Answer: D. 1 and 3

    Jinasena was a renowned Jain scholar and monk. Amoghavarsha I was a powerful Rashtrakuta king who patronized Jainism and literature.

  2. Jain religion spread in India during the reign of

    Asked in: Forest Range Officer Exam 2012 · UPPCS Prelims 2011

    1. Chandragupta Maurya
    2. Chandragupta Vikramaditya
    3. Harshavardhana
    4. Samudragupta
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Chandragupta Maurya

    Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Maurya Empire, is believed to have embraced Jainism towards the end of his life. Under his patronage and influence, Jainism gained considerable popularity and spread across various parts of India. The traditional account states that he abdicated his throne and went to Sravana Belgola in Karnataka, where he attained Sallekhana (a ritual fast unto death) according to Jain practices. Ans: C The Elephanta Caves near Mumbai are primarily famous for their large and elaborate rock-cut Hindu temples dedicated to Shiva, especially Cave 1, which houses the iconic Trimurti sculpture. While there are some older Buddhist stupas and cisterns on the island, the most prominent and extensive ancient monuments are the Saivite caves. Therefore, they are "mostly" Saivite.

  3. The ancient monuments of Elephanta are mostly I. Buddhist 2. Jain 3. Saivite 4. Vaishanvite Select the correct answer from the code given below :

    Asked in: UPPSC Upper Mains 2007

    1. 1
    2. 2
    3. 3
    4. 1 and 3
    Show answer

    Answer: C. 3

    The ancient monuments of Elephanta Caves are predominantly dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva. The most famous sculpture is the Trimurti, representing the three aspects of Shiva (creator, preserver, and destroyer). While the caves also contain some Buddhist stupas and cisterns, the elaborate rock-cut temples featuring large sculptures are overwhelmingly Saivite.

Early philosophical differences and similarities between Shaiva and Bhagavata schools

  1. Samkaras philosophy is called as

    Asked in: CGPSC Prelims Exam 2019

    1. Monism
    2. Integral Monism
    3. Dualism
    4. Non-dualism
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Non-dualism

    Adi Shankaracharya is the principal exponent of Advaita Vedanta, which translates to "non-dualism". The core tenet of Advaita is the non-duality of Brahman and Atman, meaning that the individual soul (Atman) is identical to the ultimate reality (Brahman).

  2. Who among the following propounded the Dvaitadvaita philosophy? A) Shankaracharya B) Sankardeva C) Nimbarka D) Ramanujan

    Asked in: GS&GE JE PWD 10 2024 1601 2025

    1. Shankaracharya
    2. Sankardeva
    3. Nimbarka
    4. Ramanujan
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Nimbarka

    The question tests knowledge of Indian philosophy and the key proponents of different philosophical schools.

  3. Whose disciple was Mandan Mishra ?

    Asked in: UPPSC ACF RFO gs 1 2021

    1. Shankaracharya
    2. Ramanujacharya
    3. Kumaril Bhatta
    4. Sureshwaracharya
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Kumaril Bhatta

    This question tests knowledge of the lineage of disciples in Indian philosophy, specifically concerning the relationship between prominent philosophical figures like Mandan Mishra and his guru.

  4. Whose disciple was Mandan Mishra ? A) Shankaracharya C) Kumaril Bhatta

    Asked in: UPPSC ACF RFO gs 1 2021

    1. Shankaracharya
    2. Ramanujacharya
    3. Kumaril Bhatta
    4. Suresh wara charya
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Kumaril Bhatta

    This question tests knowledge of the lineage of disciples in Indian philosophy, specifically concerning the relationship between prominent philosophical figures like Mandan Mishra and his guru.

  5. Whose disciple was Mandan Mishra ? A) Shankaracharya B) Ramanujacharya C) Kumaril Bhatta D) Suresh-waracharya

    Asked in: UPPSC ACF RFO gs 1 2021

    1. A
    2. B
    3. C
    4. D
    Show answer

    Answer: A. A

    The philosophical encounter between Shankaracharya and Mandan Mishra is a significant event in the history of Indian philosophy, particularly Advaita Vedanta.

  6. Christianity was introduced in India by

    Asked in: TRAINED GRADUATE TEACHER (TGT) 2018

    1. St. Peter
    2. St. Paul
    3. St. Thomas
    4. St. Xavier
    Show answer

    Answer: C. St. Thomas

    According to tradition and historical accounts, the Apostle St. Thomas introduced Christianity to India in the 1st century AD, specifically establishing Christian communities in the southern part of the subcontinent.

Early Shaiva traditions and the Pashupata sect

  1. Which one of the following throws light on the Lakulisha Pashupat Sect? 1. Coin of Huvishka 2. Mathura inscription of Chandragupta II 3. Maltimadhav of Bhavabhuti 4. Ashtadhyayi of Panini 5. Kadambani of Vanbhatta Choose the correct answer from the options given below :

    Asked in: HAS Prelims 2022

    1. 1, 3, 4
    2. 2, 3, 4
    3. 1, 2, 5
    4. 1, 2, 4, 5
    Show answer

    Answer: C. 1, 2, 5

    - Point 2: The Mathura Pillar Inscription of Chandragupta II (c. 380 CE) mentions Uditacharya, a teacher in a lineage tracing back to Bhagavat Parameshvara (often identified with Lakulisha), making it a crucial source for the history and genealogy of the Pashupata sect. - Point 5: Banabhatta's Kadambari (7th century CE) describes various ascetic orders, including Shaiva sects like Kapalikas and Kalamukhas, which are considered related to the broader Pashupata tradition, providing insight into their practices. - Point 1: Coins of the Kushan ruler Huvishka (2nd century CE) depict a variety of deities, including Shiva. While not specifically depicting Lakulisha, the prevalence of Shiva worship during this period is relevant to the context in which the Lakulisha sect emerged or consolidated, thus "throwing light" on the religious environment. - Point 3: Maltimadhav of Bhavabhuti (8th century CE) also describes Shaiva ascetics and practices (Kapalikas), making it a source for related traditions, though it is not included in the chosen option. - Point 4: Ashtadhyayi of Panini is a grammar text from the pre-Maurya period (c. 5th-4th century BCE) and is too early to provide information about the Lakulisha Pashupata sect, which is generally dated to the 1st-2nd century CE or later.

  2. Which one of the following was a Saiva sect in ancient India?

    Asked in: UPPCS Prelims 1996

    1. Ajivika
    2. Mattamayura
    3. Mayamata
    4. Isanasivagurudevapaddhati
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Mattamayura

    Mattamayura was a historical lineage or sub-sect within Saivism that flourished in parts of India.

  3. The Pashupatinath is located on the banks of which river?

    Asked in: JE(Civil) RWD 2021 22 2021

    1. Kosi
    2. Gandaki
    3. Trishuli
    4. Bagmati
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Bagmati

    The Pashupatinath Temple is one of the holiest Hindu temples dedicated to Lord Shiva. The river Bagmati is considered sacred in Nepal.

Emergence of the Vasudeva-Krishna cult and the Pancharatra system

  1. The Garuda Pillar at Besnagar was endowed by

    Asked in: WBCS Main Paper 3 2022

    1. Heliodorus
    2. Megasthanés
    3. Bimbisara
    4. Ajatasatru
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Heliodorus

    The Garuda Pillar at Besnagar (modern Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh) was erected around 113 BCE by Heliodorus, an Indo-Greek ambassador from Taxila to the court of the Sunga king Bhagabhadra. The inscription on the pillar states that Heliodorus was a Bhagavata (worshipper of Vishnu/Vasudeva).

  2. Which of the following Indo-Greek ruler's coin portrayed the God Samkarshana Balarama on the obverse and Vasudeva Krishna on the reverse? (1) Apollodotus (2) Agathocles (3) Hermaeus (4) Demetrius I (5) Question not attempted

    Asked in: Archaeology and Museums Dept. Exam 2023 (Curator) 2023

    1. (1) Apollodotus
    2. (2) Agathocles
    3. (3) Hermaeus
    4. (4) Demetrius I
    Show answer

    Answer: B. (2) Agathocles

    This question relates to the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Greek period and the syncretism of Hellenistic and Indian religious iconography.

Geographical spread and regional variations of Shaiva and Bhagavata cults

  1. 'Mandhata' was the ancient name of the which pilgrimage centre ?

    Asked in: MPPSC CS Prelims 2021

    1. Kamadgiri
    2. Onkareshwar
    3. Amarkantak
    4. Maheshwar
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Onkareshwar

    Onkareshwar is an island on the Narmada river in Madhya Pradesh and is home to one of the 12 Jyotirlinga shrines of Shiva. The island itself and the surrounding area were historically referred to as Mandhata.

  2. Varanasi – the ‘cultural capital of India' – is mainly associated with :

    Asked in: OPSC CS Prelims 2016

    1. Shaivism
    2. Vishnuism
    3. Shaktism
    4. Sikhism
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Shaivism

    Varanasi is considered the holiest city in Hinduism, particularly significant for Shaivites, due to its ancient temples and connection with Lord Shiva.

Iconography and symbolism in Bhagavata religion (Chakra, Shankha, Gada, Padma, early Avatara depictions)

  1. In the context of Hindu iconography, the term "Chaturvimsati Murti" refers to

    Asked in: KPSC KAS Prelims 2017

    1. Sculptural scenes depicting stories related to Lila forms of Krishna
    2. Sculptures of goddesses shown slaying asuras
    3. Samhara Murti form of Shiva, which shows Shiva in a furious mood
    4. Forms of Vishnu identified on the basis of attributes in his four hands
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Forms of Vishnu identified on the basis of attributes in his four hands

    "Chaturvimsati" literally means twenty-four. In Hindu iconography, the Chaturvimsati Murti refers to the 24 principal forms of Lord Vishnu, which are distinguished primarily by the specific permutation and combination of the four main attributes (Shankha, Chakra, Gada, Padma) held in his four hands.

  2. Which of the following incarnations of Vishnu is represented in art as raising the Earth from the Ocean ?

    Asked in: UPPCS Prelims 2009

    1. Kurma
    2. Varaha
    3. Matsya
    4. Nrisingha
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Varaha

    The Varaha avatar is the third of the ten principal avatars of Vishnu. In this form, Vishnu takes the shape of a boar to rescue the Earth goddess Bhudevi (or Prithvi) from the demon Hiranyaksha, who had submerged her in the primordial ocean. Art depictions typically show a large boar lifting a small figure of the Earth goddess on his tusk.

  3. At which one of the following sites, the boar incarnation of Vishnu has been depicted in a sculpture ?

    Asked in: UPPSC ACF RFO gs 1 2021

    1. Udaygiri Cave, Vidisha
    2. Ellora Cave, Aurangabad
    3. Hathighumpha Cave, Bhubaneswar
    4. Elephanta Cave, Mumbai
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Udaygiri Cave, Vidisha

    The boar incarnation of Vishnu is depicted in a sculpture at Udaygiri Cave, Vidisha.

Iconography and symbolism in Shaivism (Linga worship, various forms of Shiva)

  1. Match the following :

    Asked in: CGPSC Prelims Exam 2012

    1. Nandi 1. Divine white elephant
    2. Kalpvriksha 2. Holy cow
    3. Airawat 3. Shiva's bull
    4. Kamdhenu 4. Divine tree A. A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2 B. A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4 C. A-4, B-3, C-2, D-1 D. A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Nandi 1. Divine white elephant

    - Nandi is traditionally depicted as the bull vahana (mount) of Lord Shiva in Hindu mythology. - Kalpavriksha is a wish-fulfilling divine tree in Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist mythology. - Airavat is the divine white elephant mount of Indra, the king of the gods in Hinduism. - Kamdhenu is a mythical divine bovine goddess considered the mother of all cows, revered as a cow of plenty who fulfills all desires.

  2. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer from the code given below the lists. List-I List-II (God) (Symbol)

    Asked in: UPPCS Prelims 2022

    1. Shiva 1. Chakra
    2. Vishnu 2. Trident
    3. Ganesh 3. Veena
    4. Saraswati 4. Rope or noose Code: A. 1 2 3 4 B. 4 3 1 2 C. 3 2 1 4 D. 2 1 4 3
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Saraswati 4. Rope or noose Code: A. 1 2 3 4 B. 4 3 1 2 C. 3 2 1 4 D. 2 1 4 3

    - Shiva: Trident (Trishul) - Vishnu: Chakra (Sudarshana Chakra) - Ganesh: Rope (Pasha), Elephant Goad (Ankusha) - Saraswati: Veena

  3. The Dakshinamurti (South-facing) form of Shiva represents

    Asked in: UPSC CISF AC EXE 2024

    1. cosmic dancer
    2. ferocious warrior
    3. universal teacher
    4. lord of beasts
    Show answer

    Answer: C. universal teacher

    Shiva is worshipped in various forms, each representing a different aspect of his divine nature.

  4. Which form of Shiva is engraved in the Ghateshwar temple of Badoli? - (5) Question not attempted

    Asked in: Department Recruitment 2024 (Chemist) 2024

    1. Child form (Baal roop)
    2. Nataraja
    3. Pashupati
    4. Ardhanarishwar
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Child form (Baal roop)

    Art and iconography in temples often depict various forms of deities, reflecting different aspects of their mythology and worship.

  5. The chief deity worshipped at Katarmall temple is

    Asked in: Government Polytechnic Exam 2012

    1. Shiva
    2. Vishnu
    3. Sun
    4. Durga
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Sun

    This question relates to the historical and religious architecture of India. Recognizing the deity associated with prominent temples is a common aspect of Indian history and culture-related questions.

Interaction and syncretism between Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and other ancient Indian religions

  1. Which of the following were followers of Nirguna path of Bhakti? (A) Kabir (B) Nanak (C) Raidas (D) Mira Select the correct code given below - (1) B and C (2) A, C and D (3) A, B, C and D (4) A, B and C (5) Question not attempted

    Asked in: Archaeology and Museums Dept. Exam 2023 (Curator) 2023

    1. (1)
    2. (2)
    3. (3)
    4. (4)
    Show answer

    Answer: D. (4)

    The Nirguna path of Bhakti emphasizes devotion to a formless God, while the Saguna path focuses on devotion to a God with attributes or form. Kabir, Nanak, and Raidas are considered prominent Nirguna saints, while Mira Bai is known for her devotion to Lord Krishna (a form of God).

  2. The founder of Shahpura branch of Ramsnehi Sect were -

    Asked in: Asst. Agriculture Officer 2015 1 2015

    1. Dariyav Ji
    2. Pranranath ji
    3. Ramdev ji
    4. Ramcharan ji
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Ramcharan ji

    The Ramsnehi Sampradaya (sect) is a devotional tradition emphasizing the worship of Rama. It was founded by Swami Ramcharan Ji in the 18th century. The sect has several branches, with Shahpura in Rajasthan being a significant one.

  3. Consider the following statements regarding folk Goddess - (A) Aurangzeb had gifted "Chatra" of gold in Temple with a desire to get rid of Leprosy. (B) This temple is a Tantrik Shakti Peeth. (C) Continuous flame of fire is burning of which 'Kajal' is made at "Kajal Shikhar". Which folk Goddess is referred in the above statements?

    Asked in: Asst. Director (Sci. and Tech. Dept.) 2024

    1. Idana Mata
    2. Jeen Mata
    3. Karni Mata
    4. Sakrai Mata
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Karni Mata

    The key indicators are the reference to Aurangzeb's gold gift, the Tantric Shakti Peeth nature of the temple, and the "Kajal Shikhar" with its eternal flame, all of which are strongly associated with Karni Mata.

  4. Which of the following Bhakti Saints divided South India into 74 parts and appointed Acharyas to propagate his ideas there ? - Question not attempted

    Asked in: Deputy Jailor 2024

    1. Shankaracharya
    2. Vallabhacharya
    3. Ramanuj
    4. Ramanand
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Ramanuj

    Ramanujacharya's organizational efforts in spreading his philosophy in South India.

  5. Kamadia Panth was founded by

    Asked in: Local Self Government Dept. Exam 2022

    1. Tejaji
    2. Pabuji
    3. Ramdevji
    4. Harbhuiji
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Ramdevji

    Religious and spiritual movements play a vital role in the social fabric of regions. Identifying the founders of such panths is crucial for understanding local religious history.

  6. 'Dharma Jahaj', 'Bhakti-Padarath' and 'Nasket Leela' are the compositions of which of the following saint?

    Asked in: School Lecturer (Sanskrit Edu.) 2022 1 2022

    1. Laldas
    2. Ram Charan
    3. Sundardas
    4. Charandas
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Sundardas

    Sundardas's key works include 'Dharma Jahaj' (Ship of Dharma), 'Bhakti-Padarath' (Essence of Devotion), and 'Nasket Leela' (Eternal Play). These works delve into theological discussions, the nature of devotion, and philosophical interpretations of religious concepts.

Major deities of Bhagavata tradition (Vishnu, Krishna, Balarama, Lakshmi)

  1. In context of Indian culture who among the following is called Ananga ?

    Asked in: CGPSC Prelims Exam 2016

    1. Shiva
    2. Krishna
    3. Kama
    4. Laxman
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Kama

    The word 'Ananga' literally means "bodiless" or "without a body".

  2. When is the Bahura Chouth Festival celebrated?

    Asked in: CGPSC Prelims Exam 2020

    1. Bhado Krishna Chaturthi
    2. Bhado Shukla Chaturthi
    3. Kwar Krishna Chaturthi
    4. Kwar Shukla Chaturthi
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Bhado Krishna Chaturthi

    The Bahura Chouth Festival, also known as Bahula Chaturthi, is celebrated on the fourth day (Chaturthi) of the dark fortnight (Krishna Paksha) in the Hindu month of Bhadrapada (Bhado). This festival is primarily observed by women for the well-being of their sons, involving fasting and worshipping cows.

  3. W ho among the following deities is represented in art as holding a plough ?

    Asked in: UPPCS Prelims 2011 · UPPSC Upper Mains 2007

    1. Krishna
    2. Balarama
    3. Kartikeya
    4. Maitreya
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Balarama

    This question tests knowledge of the attributes and symbols associated with Hindu deities.

  4. Who among the following is the principal deity of Sri Padmanabha Swamy Temple, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala ?

    Asked in: Assistant Accountant 2012

    1. Vishnu
    2. Surya
    3. Shiva
    4. Kartikeya
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Vishnu

    This question tests knowledge about important religious sites and their principal deities, a common topic in Indian culture and heritage sections of the UPSC exam.

  5. With which one of the following religions Alvar Saints were associated ?

    Asked in: Lower Subordinate Services Examination 2024

    1. Shaivism
    2. Vaishnavism
    3. Jainism
    4. Buddhism
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Vaishnavism

    The Alvar saints were a group of mystics and poets who lived in South India between the 7th and 10th centuries CE. They were devotees of Lord Vishnu and their devotional hymns, compiled as the Naalayira Divya Prabandham, are central to the theology and practice of Vaishnavism.

Origins of Bhagavata tradition: Vedic Vishnu and Narayana

  1. The legend of Prahlad and his father Hiranyakashyap was first set out in the

    Asked in: UPSC CDS 2 2022

    1. Bhagwat Purana
    2. Vishnu Purana
    3. Vamana Purana
    4. Agni Purana
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Bhagwat Purana

    Puranas are a vast genre of Indian literature dealing with a wide range of topics, including cosmology, history, genealogies, and religious teachings. The Bhagavata Purana is considered one of the most important Puranas, particularly within the Vaishnava tradition.

  2. The earliest known epigraphic evidence of Bhagvatism is :

    Asked in: UKPSC CS Prelims 2012

    1. Prayag Prashasti of Samudra Gupta
    2. Nasik inscription of Gautami Balshri
    3. Garuda column at Besnagar
    4. Ayodhya inscription of Dhanadeva
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Garuda column at Besnagar

    The Heliodorus pillar inscription at Besnagar (Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh) is widely considered the earliest known epigraphic evidence of Bhagvatism.

  3. Originally 'Bhagwat Geeta' is part of which Parva of Mahabharat?

    Asked in: Civil Judge 2022

    1. Bhishma Parva
    2. Drona Parva
    3. Shanti Parva
    4. Anushasan parva
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Bhishma Parva

    This question pertains to the structure and content of ancient Indian epics, specifically the Mahabharata.

Origins of Shaivism: Vedic Rudra and Indus Valley connections

  1. Where is the main temple of folk god Harbhuiji situated?

    Asked in: Sr. Teacher Gr II (Sec. Edu.) Comp. Exam 2022

    1. Sabla
    2. Samaliya
    3. Kolu
    4. Bengati
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Samaliya

    (G.K. Group A)-2022 This question concerns the religious and cultural geography of Rajasthan, specifically the locations of temples dedicated to folk deities.

  2. The fair of Tilwara is held in the memory of which of the following Folk God?

    Asked in: Sr. Teacher Gr II (Sec. Edu.) Comp. Exam 2022

    1. St. Mavji
    2. Mallinathji
    3. Dev Narainji
    4. Veer Fattaji
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Mallinathji

    (G.K. Group B)-2022 The Tilwara fair is dedicated to the folk god Mallinathji.

  3. Who made Sambharathal near Bikaner as his workplace?

    Asked in: Sr. Teacher Gr II (Sec. Edu.) Comp. Exam 2022

    1. Gogaji
    2. Pabuji
    3. Dhannaji
    4. Jambhoji
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Jambhoji

    (G.K. Group B)-2022 Jambhoji established his base and propagated his teachings from Sambharathal near Bikaner.

Patronage by ancient dynasties (e.g., Guptas, Satavahanas)

  1. The Gupta were known adherents of the

    Asked in: GPSC Prelims CSP 1 2017

    1. Sakya Sampradaya
    2. Bhagavata Sampradaya
    3. Shaiva Sampradaya
    4. Saura Sampradaya
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Bhagavata Sampradaya

    - The worship of Vishnu became very prominent during the Gupta period, and this era is often considered a golden age for Vaishnavism. - Numerous temples dedicated to Vishnu were built, and images of Vishnu and his avatars were widely depicted. - While the Guptas were tolerant of other religions like Shaivism, Buddhism, and Jainism, their personal and state patronage was significantly tilted towards Bhagavatism.

  2. Which of the following inscriptions of Samudragupta describe him as a 'Param Bhagavat'?

    Asked in: District Statistical Officer Assistant Director 2025

    1. Allahabad Pillar Inscription
    2. Eran Pillar Inscription
    3. Bhitiri Inscription
    4. Mahrauli Inscription
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Eran Pillar Inscription

    The Eran Pillar Inscription is the source that identifies Samudragupta as a 'Param Bhagavat'.

Prominent Shaiva deities and their evolution (Shiva, Parvati, Ganesha, Kartikeya)

  1. Teej a Hindu festival is dedicated to which Goddess ?

    Asked in: MPSC CS Prelims 2014

    1. Lakshmi
    2. Saraswati
    3. Parvati
    4. Durga
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Parvati

    Teej is a Hindu festival celebrated by women, primarily in North India, dedicated to commemorating the union of Shiva and Parvati. It is observed during the monsoon season.

Shaiva Agamas and early philosophical developments

  1. With which religion is Kalika Purana associated?

    Asked in: MPPSC CS Prelims 2018

    1. Vaishnavism
    2. Shaktism
    3. Buddhism
    4. Jainism
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Shaktism

    The Kalika Purana is a major Hindu religious text, specifically associated with Shaktism, which is the tradition that venerates the divine feminine (Devi) as the supreme power. The Purana focuses on the goddess Kali and other forms of Devi.

  2. The teachings of Lal Ded represented which of the following?

    Asked in: Assistant Auditor (Direct) 2021

    1. Kashmir Shaivism
    2. Assam Vaishnavism
    3. Himagolasm
    4. Subhadraism
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Kashmir Shaivism

    Lal Ded's verses, known as 'Lal Vakyas' or 'Vaakhs', are a significant part of Kashmiri literature and philosophy, deeply rooted in the monistic philosophy of Kashmir Shaivism, emphasizing the divine essence within all beings.

The Vyuha doctrine and Avataravad in early Vaishnavism

  1. Which one of the following is main teaching of Gita ?

    Asked in: CGPSC Prelims Exam 2017

    1. Karma yoga
    2. Gyan yoga
    3. Bhakti yoga
    4. Nishkāma karma yoga
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Nishkāma karma yoga

    While the Gita discusses all three paths, a central and recurring theme, particularly emphasized through Lord Krishna's advice to Arjuna on the battlefield, is the importance of performing one's duty (karma) without attachment to the results or fruits of the action. This concept is known as Nishkāma Karma Yoga (selfless action or action without desire for results). This teaching addresses the dilemma of acting in the world while remaining spiritually focused and detached from worldly outcomes. It provides a practical philosophy for living a spiritual life within the context of performing one's worldly duties.

  2. Usha, the grand daughter-in-law of Lord Krishna is supposed to have popularized the Lasya form of dance known as

    Asked in: GPSC Prelims CSP 1 2017

    1. Mer Rass
    2. Garba
    3. Tippani
    4. Ghummar
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Garba

    Usha is a mythological figure associated with the popularization of the Lasya dance form among women. Garba is a widely known folk dance from Gujarat, Lord Krishna's kingdom of Dwarka was located in this region.

  3. Which of the following statement(s) is(are) correct with reference to Hallisaka dance? The dance is very significant in the Harivansha Purana. The dancers form a circle with their hands joined together to form a chain. A young man who acts as Lord Krishna stands in the middle of the 'Gopis.'

    Asked in: GPSC Prelims CSP 1 2018

    1. Only 1
    2. Only 2
    3. Only 1 and 2
    4. 1, 2 and 3
    Show answer

    Answer: D. 1, 2 and 3

    Hallisaka is an ancient form of group dance, considered a precursor to later forms like Rasa dance, associated with the playful activities of Lord Krishna and the Gopis.

  4. Pabuji is believed to be an incarnation of

    Asked in: Sr. Teacher Gr.II Comp. Exam 2016 2 2016

    1. Shatrughna
    2. Lakshaman
    3. Bharat
    4. Rama
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Lakshaman

    Pabuji is considered an incarnation of Lakshman.

  5. In Sufism, the word 'Wali' literally means

    Asked in: CDO GS 2401 2024

    1. spiritual master
    2. sincere friend
    3. seeker
    4. ardent follower
    Show answer

    Answer: B. sincere friend

    Sufism is the mystical dimension of Islam, focusing on inner purification and the direct experience of God. The concept of 'Wali' is central to the Sufi understanding of spiritual hierarchy and divine proximity.

  6. In which of the following Puranas, the five characteristics of the Puranas are mentioned? - (a) Vayu - (b) Matsya - (c) Vaman - (d) Vishnu

    Asked in: engg exam 1

    1. (a), (b) and (c)
    2. (a), (b) and (d)
    3. (a), (c) and (d)
    4. (b), (c) and (d)
    Show answer

    Answer: B. (a), (b) and (d)

    The Puranas are ancient Indian literature that contains a broad range of subjects, including cosmogony, mythology, and genealogies. The 'Panchalakshana' (five characteristics) is a defining feature of the Puranic genre.