South India (Chola, Chalukya, Pallava and Sangam Period) is part of Ancient History of India. Below are notes on 14 sub-topics, followed by practice MCQs from State PSC and UPSC papers.

Chalukya Art and Architecture (Aihole, Pattadakal, Badami styles)

  • Chalukyas developed the Vesara style of architecture.
  • Chalukya structural temples are found at Aihole, Badami, and Pattadakal.
  • The Badami rock inscription of Pulakesin I is dated in Saka year 465.
  • To convert Saka year to Vikrama Samvat, add 135 years (Vikrama = Saka + 135).
  • In the Lad Khan temple inscription at Aihole, the guild established by Brahman traders was Ayyavole.
  • Aihole is known as the 'City of Temples'. Stambha dedicated to Vasudeva (Vaishnavism), not primarily a Shaivite cave shrine.

Chalukyas of Badami: Political history, key rulers, and administration

  • The Chalukyas of Badami are also referred to as Western Chalukyas.
  • Founder: Pulakeshin I (mid-6th century AD).
  • Capital: Vatapi (modern Badami, Karnataka).
  • The Chalukyas of Badami rose to prominence by displacing the Kadambas, whose capital was Vanavasi.
  • Most Famous Ruler: Pulakeshin II (reign c. 610-642 AD).
  • Pulakeshin II famously defeated Emperor Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada River, halting his southward expansion. This victory is frequently dated around 618 A.D.
  • The exploits of Pulakeshin II, including his triumph over Harsha, are chronicled in the Aihole inscription (dated 634-635 A.D.), composed by his court poet Ravikirti.
  • The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang) visited the court of Pulakeshin II (c. 641 A.D.).
  • In his travelogue Si-Yu-Ki (or Records of the Western Regions), Hiuen Tsang described the power and splendor of Pulakeshin II and the character of the people in his kingdom.
  • Pulakeshin II maintained diplomatic relations with Sassanid Persia (Iran), evidenced by an exchange of embassies with King Khosrow II.
  • Pulakeshin II was eventually defeated and killed by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I, who subsequently captured and sacked Vatapi.

Chola Art, Architecture (temple building, bronze sculptures), and Literature

  • Chola Architecture (Dravidian Style): Characterized by monumental scale, emphasis on the vimana (main tower over the sanctum), and intricate sculptures.
  • Gopurams: Mighty gateways, increasingly prominent in South Indian temples, serving as impressive entrances.
  • Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur (Rajaraja I, c. 1010 CE): Exemplifies Chola architecture; features a massive vimana. A UNESCO World Heritage Site. Also known as the Shiva Temple at Tanjavur.
  • Gangaikondacholapuram Temple (Rajendra I): Built as a capital temple; known for its unique constricted vimana. UNESCO World Heritage Site.
  • Airavatesvara Temple, Darasuram (Rajaraja II): Noted for its intricate carvings and smaller scale. UNESCO World Heritage Site.
  • Temple's Role: Chola temples were not merely places of worship but served as vital cultural, economic, and administrative centers, providing extensive employment to architects, sculptors, and other craftsmen.
  • Chola Sculpture (Bronze): Reached its zenith using the lost-wax (cire perdue) technique.
  • Nataraja: Iconic bronze sculpture of the dancing Shiva, symbolizing cosmic creation, preservation, and destruction.
  • Chola Paintings (Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur): Early Chola paintings discovered within the temple.
  • Shiva as Yoga-Dakshinamurti: A significant Chola painting found at the Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur (discovered 1931), depicting Shiva as the universal teacher.
  • Chola Literature (Tamil): Flourished under Chola patronage.
  • Kamban: Authored "Kamban Ramayanam" (Ramavatharam), a classic Tamil version of the Ramayana.
  • Sekkizhar: Wrote "Periyapuranam" (Tiruttondar Puranam), a hagiographical account of the 63 Nayanar (Shaivite) saints.
  • Ottakoothar: Prominent court poet during the reigns of Kulottunga II, III and Vikrama Chola.
  • Pugalendi: Author of 'Nalavenba'.
  • Kudumiyamalai Inscription: A musical inscription (7th-8th century CE, Pallava period) in Tamil Nadu, containing musical notes.
  • Bharatnatyam: A classical Indian dance form from Tamil Nadu. Its steps comprise 'Adavus', which include terms like Tagananam, Jagananam, Dhaganam, and Sammishram.
  • Kalamkari Painting: A hand-painted cotton textile art form originating from South India.
  • Kakatiya Period Paintings: Tripuranthakam is considered an important center for their study.

Chola Naval Power and Overseas Expeditions

  • Rajaraja I (c. 985–1014 CE): Initiated the establishment of a powerful Chola naval army.
  • Rajaraja I's Naval Expeditions:
    • Conquered northern Sri Lanka (Anuradhapura).
    • Captured Maldives (Munnir Pazhantivu).
    • Destroyed Chera navy at Kandalur Salai (near Trivandrum).
    • Defeated and captured the Pandya king.
  • Rajendra I (c. 1014–1044 CE): Expanded Chola naval power significantly.
  • Rajendra I's Naval Expeditions:
    • Led a major overseas expedition against the Srivijaya Empire (parts of modern Indonesia and the Malay Peninsula) in 1025 CE.
    • This campaign secured control over vital maritime trade routes in the Strait of Malacca.
  • Chola Ports: Kaveripattanam (Puhar) was a major Chola port. Nagapattanam also served as an important port. Tamralipti (Bengal) and Shaliyar (Pandya port) were not Chola Empire ports.
  • Srivijaya Buddhist Vihara: Rajaraja I permitted the Srivijayan king, Maravijayottunga Varman, to construct the Buddhist Chudamani Vihara at Nagapattanam, which was started by his father and completed by Maravijayottunga Varman.

Chola Society, Economy, and Agrarian relations

  • The Chalukya dynasty frequently assigned ladies high-ranking positions in administration.
  • 'The Five Hundred' (Ayyavole) was a prominent merchant guild.
  • Ayyavole merchant guild was originally established in Aihole.
  • 'The Five Hundred' comprised merchants who traded across South-East Asia.
  • 'The Five Hundred' operated with no single leader and no fixed head office.
  • Manigraman and Anjuvannam were distinct merchant guilds; Manigraman was not subordinated to Anjuvannam.

Geographical context and early settlements of South India

  • The ancient region south of the Vindhyas and Deccan Plateau was broadly referred to as Dakshinapatha.
  • South India's geography, characterized by fragmented fertile river valleys separated by hills and plateaus, favored the emergence of smaller, regional kingdoms over large unified empires.
  • In South India, the Iron Age typically succeeded the Stone Age directly, with little or no evidence of an intermediate Copper Age.
  • Tamilakam, the ancient Tamil country, included present-day Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and parts of southern Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, extending from the Tirupati hills to the southernmost tip of the peninsula.
  • Archaeological studies in the vicinity of the Thamirabarani river (e.g., Sivakalai) have revealed a flourishing agrarian civilization with well-established rice cultivation by 1200 BCE.
  • Megalithic burial sites in South India frequently contain remains of charcoal.
  • The Vijayanagar Empire was founded in 1336 CE by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I.
  • Raja Krishnadevaraya belonged to the Tuluva Dynasty of the Vijayanagar Empire.

Imperial Cholas: Political expansion, administrative system, and local self-government

  • Founder of the Chola Dynasty: Vijayalaya (c. 850 CE).
  • The Chola Age was most famous for its village assemblies (local self-government).
  • Key Chola Rulers (Chronological Order): Parantaka I (c. 907-955 CE) → Rajaraja I (985-1014 CE) → Rajendra I (1014-1044 CE) → Rajadhiraja I (1044-1052 CE) → Kulottunga I (1070-1122 CE) → Vikrama Chola (1118-1135 CE).
  • Rajaraja I (985-1014 CE):
    • Conquered northern Ceylon/Sri Lanka (named 'Mummudi Chola Mandalam').
    • Assumed the title 'Shivpad Shekhar'.
    • Encouraged the Sailendra ruler of Sri Vijaya to build a Buddhist Vihara in Negapatnam.
  • Rajendra I (1014-1044 CE):
    • Completed the conquest of Ceylon/Sri Lanka.
    • Undertook a successful expedition to the Ganga plains, earning the title 'Gangaikondachola'.
    • Founded a new capital city: Gangaikondacholapuram.
    • Led naval expeditions against the Srivijaya kingdom in Southeast Asia.
  • The Chola dynasty established the largest dominion in Southern India.
  • Chola Administrative System:
    • Known for its highly organized structure and autonomy of village administration.
    • The empire was divided into `Mandalam` (provinces), which were further sub-divided into `Valanadu` (districts), then `Nadu` (group of villages), and `Kurram` (smallest unit of villages).
    • `Mandalam` and `Nadu` were key administrative institutions of the Cholas.
    • Village Assemblies (Local Self-Government):
      • `Ur`: General assembly of common villagers.
      • `Sabha` or `Mahasabha`: Exclusive assembly of adult Brahmin males, primarily found in `Brahmadeya` villages (granted to Brahmins). It functioned through committees (`Variyams`).
  • Chola Terminology:
    • `Eripatti`: Land whose revenue was set apart for the maintenance of the village tank.
    • `Taniyurs`: Large villages or towns that enjoyed independent, autonomous status as self-governing units.
    • `Ghatikas`: Colleges or centers of learning generally attached to temples.
  • Dynasty Associations (for matching):
    • Mahendravarman: Pallava Dynasty.
    • Amogavarsha: Rashtrakuta Dynasty.
    • Vishnuvardhana: Hoysala Dynasty.
    • Kadungon: Pandya Dynasty.

Pallava

Administration

and

societal

organization

  • Mahendravarman I was a prominent Pallava ruler.
  • Mahendravarman I assumed titles like 'Chitrakarppuli' (Tiger among painters) and 'Chettakari' (Temple Builder).
  • Mahendravarman I authored the Sanskrit satirical play 'Mattavilas Prahasana'.
  • Narasinghavarman I was a significant Pallava ruler.

Pallava Art and Architecture (rock-cut and structural temples)

  • Pallava architecture represents a significant phase in the development of the Dravida style.
  • Pallava art evolved through distinct phases: rock-cut cave temples (Mahendra style), monolithic Rathas (Mamalla style), and structural stone temples (Rajasimha style).
  • Mahendra Style (c. 610-630 AD): Initiated by Mahendravarman I, characterized by rock-cut cave temples (mandapas).
  • Adivaraha Cave Temple at Mamallapuram features royal portraits of Simhavishnu and Mahendravarman I.
  • Kotikal Mandapam in Mahabalipuram is an example of a Pallava rock-cut mandapam.
  • Mamalla Style (c. 630-668 AD): Developed under Narasimhavarman I Mamalla. This phase includes both cave temples and monolithic shrines (Rathas).
  • The 'Seven Rathas' (Pancha Pandava Rathas) at Mahabalipuram are monolithic temples carved out of single rocks and were built by Narasimhavarman I Mamalla.
  • The Dharmaraja Ratha is the largest among the Pallava Rathas at Mahabalipuram.
  • Rajasimha Style (c. 690-728 AD): Associated with Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha, marking the transition to structural stone temples.
  • The Kailasanathar Temple at Kanchipuram, a prominent structural temple, was built by Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha towards the end of the 7th century.
  • The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram is another significant structural temple attributed to Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha.

Religious developments in South India (Bhakti movement, Saivism, Vaishnavism)

  • The Bhakti movement emerged in South India (c. 6th-9th centuries CE), emphasizing personal devotion to a deity, fostering egalitarianism, and challenging orthodox Vedic rituals.
  • Saivism in South India was propagated by the Nayanars, a group of 63 devotional saints dedicated to Lord Shiva.
  • Prominent Nayanar saints include Thirugnana Sambandar, Thirunavukkarasar (Appar), Sundarar, and Manikkavasagar.
  • Thirugnana Sambandar is famously quoted for saying "Tamizhodu Isaippaadal Maranthariyen" (I have not forgotten to sing in Tamil).
  • The devotional hymns of the Nayanars are primarily compiled in the Tevaram and the larger collection known as Thirumurai.
  • Vaishnavism in South India was propagated by the Alvars, a group of 12 devotional saints dedicated to Lord Vishnu.
  • Andal was the only female saint among the Alvars, revered for her intense devotion to Vishnu/Krishna.
  • The devotional hymns of the Alvar saints are compiled into the 'Nalayira Divya Prabandham', a collection of 4000 divine hymns.

Rise and consolidation of the Pallavas of Kanchi

  • Pallavas emerged chronologically after the Satavahanas and before the Rashtrakutas and Chalukyas of Kalyani.
  • The Pallavas replaced the Ikshvakus of Vijayapuri, as evidenced by the Manchilkallu inscription of Pallava Simhavarman.
  • The capital of the Pallavas was Kanchipuram (Kanchi).
  • Pallavas initially issued their documents in Prakrit, later switching to Sanskrit.
  • Kanchi was a renowned city, a significant center of education, and the capital of the Pallavas.
  • Chinese pilgrim Yuan Chwang (also known as Hien Tsang) visited Kanchi in A.D. 640.
  • Scholars associated with Kanchi include Dingnaga, but Mayuravarma (Kadamba king) and Vatsyayan are not primarily Kanchi scholars.
  • Aparajitavarman was the last ruler of the Pallava dynasty.

Sangam Age: Political structure of Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas

  • King: Known as Kon, Ko, Mannan.
  • Spies: Known as Orars.
  • Cheras:
    • Capital: Vanji (Karur).
    • Emblem: Bow.
    • Titles: Villavar, Kudavar.
    • Notable Kings:
      • Udiyanseral: First Chera king.
      • Senguttuvan (Red Chera): Constructed the temple for Kannagi (Pattini cult).
  • Cholas:
    • Capital: Uraiyur, Puhar (Kaveripattinam).
    • Emblem: Tiger.
    • Notable Kings:
      • Karikalan: Titled 'The man with burnt legs'.
  • Pandyas:
    • Capital: Madurai.
    • Emblem: Fish.
    • Titles: Minavar, Panchavar.
    • Madurai:
      • Described in Maduraikkanchi (authored by Mangudi Marudanar) as a large, grand city, walled on three sides, with the Vaigai river on the fourth.
      • Mentioned in Arthashastra as a centre of fine cotton textiles.
      • Known as a major craft centre.

Sangam Literature and Cultural contributions

  • The term 'Sangam' refers to an assembly or academy of Tamil poets.
  • Sangam literature is primarily in the Tamil language.
  • Sangam texts are broadly classified into:
    • Melkanakku (Eighteen Major Works): Narrative and heroic poems (e.g., Ettuttogai, Pattuppattu).
    • Kilkanakku (Eighteen Minor Works): Didactic and moral poems (e.g., Thirukkural).
  • Tolkappiyam: The earliest extant Tamil grammar text, authored by Tolkappiyyar. It is a foundational work of the Sangam corpus, generally dated between 1st-4th century CE, and not composed by Panini.
  • Silappadikaram: A major classical Tamil epic authored by Ilango Adigal.
    • It narrates the story of Kovalan, Kannagi, and Madhavi.
    • It praises the Cauvery (Kaveri) river.
    • It reflects the cult of Shakti worship, particularly the deification of Kannagi following her act of injustice.
  • Thirukkural: A major didactic Sangam text by Tiruvalluvar, part of Kilkanakku.
    • It covers three sections: Aram (virtue), Porul (wealth/governance), and Inbam (love).
    • The chapter "Understanding the truth" (Meyyunarthal) reflects philosophical knowledge.
    • "Vendharkku Oli" (glory of kings) in Thirukkural is associated with Kodai (generosity), Ali (kindness), and Sengol Kudiyombal (just/protective rule).
    • "Porul Allavatrai Porul Endru Unarthal" (perceiving non-real things as real) is an action that cannot lead to truthconsciousness.
  • Sangam Landscape Divisions (Thinai):
    • Marudam: Fertile agricultural lands.
    • Kurinji: Hilly tracts.
    • Mullai: Pastoral lands.
    • Neydal: Coastal regions.
    • Palai: Desert/arid lands.
  • Vattakirutal (Vadakirutal): A Sangam-era practice of ritual suicide by starvation, often undertaken by defeated kings or disgraced warriors.
  • Social Aspects in Sangam Literature:
    • Sangam literature shows awareness of social classification, including Brahmins, though the Varna system was not as rigidly defined as in the North.
    • It provides rich descriptions of material culture, trade, agriculture, and a strong warrior ethic.
  • Perumpaanatru Padai: Part of the Ten Idylls (Pattuppattu), known for depicting themes of generosity and hospitality (Virundhomputhal).
  • Ancient Tamil Musical Notes:
    • Kural: Shadjam
    • Thutham: Rishabham
    • Kaikilai: Gandharam
    • Vuzhai: Madhyamam
  • Tamil Literary Vocabulary:
    • Thaarugan: Demon (Arakkan)
    • Aazhi: Chariot wheel (Thaer Chakkaram)
    • Natriram: Righteous path/Justice (Araneri)
    • Imaiyavar: Deities/Celestial beings (Thevar)
  • Cultural Contributions (Dance):
    • Bharatanatyam: An ancient South Indian classical dance form, also known as Thanjavur Natyam, with roots in Tamil Nadu.
    • Yamini Krishnamurthy is a renowned exponent of Bharatanatyam.

Sangam Society, Economy, and Trade (including Roman connections)

  • Sangam Society was structured around five eco-zones (thinai):
  • Kurinchi (Mountainous): Hill people (Kuravan Makkal), hunting, gathering.
  • Mullai (Pastoral): Pastoralists (Mullai Makkal), cattle rearing.
  • Marutam (Fertile Plains): Ploughmen (Maruta Makkal), agriculture.
  • Neytal (Seashore): Fishing people (Neytal Makkal), fishing, salt making.
  • Palai (Arid/Desert): Robbers, warriors.
  • Vellalars were large landowners in Sangam society.
  • Uzhavars were ploughmen.
  • Adimais were slaves or landless labourers.
  • Gahapatis refers to masters of a household.
  • Vallals were wealthy patrons or philanthropists.
  • Diet of early Tamils included ghee, consumed by both vegetarians and non-vegetarians, and it fetched a high price.
  • Sangam economy was robust, with extensive trade activities described in texts, indicating it was not primarily pastoral only.
  • 'Ma' and 'Veli' were measures of land.
  • Uraiyur was a prominent center for fine cotton trade during the Sangam period.
  • Korkai, Poompuhar (Kaveripattanam), and Muchiri (Musiri) were well-known Sangam ports.
  • Korkai was an important Pandya port, celebrated for its pearls.
  • Puhar (Kaveripattanam) was a major Chola port on the east coast.
  • Muchiri (Musiri) and Tondi were important Chera ports located on the west coast (Malabar coast).
  • Arikamedu was a significant site on the Coromandel coast, providing valuable information about India's maritime links, often referred to as a 'Roman factory' due to extensive Roman artifacts.

14. Ancient Literature and Litterateur

Practice MCQs: South India (Chola, Chalukya, Pallava and Sangam Period)

Chalukya Art and Architecture (Aihole, Pattadakal, Badami styles)

  1. Consider the following statements: 1. They developed Vesara style of architecture. 2. Their structural temples exist at Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal. 3. Their administration was highly centralized. The above statements most accurately refer to?

    Asked in: GPSC Prelims CSP 1 2024

    1. Cholas
    2. Chalukyas
    3. Cheras
    4. Pandyas
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Chalukyas

    The Early Western Chalukyas, particularly of Badami, are credited with developing the Vesara style of architecture (a hybrid of North Indian Nagara and South Indian Dravida styles). They were prominent builders of structural temples at sites like Aihole, Badami, and Pattadakal, which showcase early forms of both Nagara and Dravida styles, contributing to the evolution towards Vesara.

  2. In the Lad Khan temple inscription of Aihole the guild established by Brahman traders was - - (5) Question not attempted

    Asked in: Archaeology and Museums Dept. Exam 2023 (Curator) 2023

    1. Anjuvannam
    2. Kularika
    3. Yanigraman
    4. Ayyavole
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Ayyavole

    The Lad Khan temple inscription at Aihole is significant for its mention of the Ayyavole guild, which was an important organization of traders, particularly Brahman traders, in ancient Karnataka.

  3. 'City of Temples' is referred for

    Asked in: Protection Officer 2018

    1. Aihola
    2. Pattadakal
    3. Manyakhet
    4. Vengi
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Aihola

    Aihola is renowned for its architectural heritage, with over 120 temples dating back to the 6th-12th centuries CE, representing a significant stage in the development of Indian temple architecture.

Chalukyas of Badami: Political history, key rulers, and administration

  1. Pulakeshin II belonged to which dynasty of rulers?

    Asked in: UPSC Geoscientist 2021

    1. Eastern Chalukyas
    2. Pallavas
    3. Eastern Gangas
    4. Western Chalukyas
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Western Chalukyas

    Pulakeshin II ruled from 610 to 642 CE. He is famous for his military campaigns, including his victory over Emperor Harsha of Kannauj, as recorded in the Aihole inscription composed by his court poet Ravikirti.

  2. The Chalukyan ruler Pulakesin's victory over Harsha was in the year

    Asked in: JPSC CS Prelims 2016

    1. 612 A.D.
    2. 618 A.D.
    3. 622 A.D.
    4. 634 A.D.
    Show answer

    Answer: B. 618 A.D.

    Pulakesin II of the Chalukya dynasty defeated Emperor Harshavardhana of Kannauj on the banks of the Narmada River, effectively halting Harsha's southward expansion. This significant victory is recorded in the Aihole inscription (dated Saka 556 = 634 AD), composed by Ravikirti. While the inscription is dated 634 AD, historical sources and interpretation of the inscription place the battle itself around 618 AD or 619 AD. Option B (618 AD) is the date most commonly cited for the battle.

  3. Name the Chalukya king who defeated Harshavardana.

    Asked in: WBPSC CS Prelims 2023

    1. Pulakeshin I
    2. Pulakeshin II
    3. Mangalesh
    4. Kirtivarmana
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Pulakeshin II

    Pulakeshin II, the most renowned ruler of the Chalukya dynasty of Vatapi, famously defeated Emperor Harshavardana of Kannauj in a major battle fought on the banks of the Narmada River, halting Harsha's southern expansion.

  4. The capital of Kadamba Kings was

    Asked in: UPPSC Upper Mains 2005

    1. Tanjore
    2. Vanavasi
    3. Kanchi
    4. Badami
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Vanavasi

    The Kadamba dynasty was an ancient royal dynasty of Karnataka, India, that ruled from the 4th to the 6th centuries CE. Their kingdom was founded by Mayurasharma, and their capital was located at Vanavasi in the present-day Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka.

  5. Who of the following Chinese travellers has given an account of relationship of China with India during the reign of Chalukyas?

    Asked in: UPPSC Upper Mains 2014

    1. Fa-Hien
    2. Hieun-Tsang
    3. It-Sing
    4. Matwalin
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Hieun-Tsang

    Hieun-Tsang's travelogue, "Records of the Western Regions," is a crucial source of information about 7th-century India, including interactions and conditions in the kingdoms he visited, such as the Chalukya realm.

  6. Emperor Harsha’s southward march was stopped on the Narmada River by

    Asked in: UPPCS Prelims 2003

    1. Pulakesin-I
    2. Pulakesin-II
    3. Vikramaditya-I
    4. Vilcramaditya-II
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Pulakesin-II

    Emperor Harsha, after consolidating his rule in North India, attempted to expand his empire southwards across the Vindhya range. However, his campaign was decisively halted at the banks of the Narmada River by Pulakesin II, the powerful ruler of the Chalukya dynasty of Vatapi (Badami).

  7. Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang visited the court of which Badami Chalukya ruler and described the power, splendour of the king and the nature of the people in his book Si-Yu-Ki?

    Asked in: Archaeology and Museums Dept. Exam 2023 (Curator) 2023

    1. Pulakeshin II
    2. Vikramaditya I
    3. Vinayaditya
    4. Vikramaditya II
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Pulakeshin II

    Pulakeshin II was a powerful Chalukya ruler, and his reign was notable for his military achievements and patronage of arts and culture. Hiuen Tsang's account provides valuable insights into the political and social conditions of the Deccan during that period.

Chola Art, Architecture (temple building, bronze sculptures), and Literature

  1. The mighty gateways found at the temples of South India are called

    Asked in: BPSC Prelims Exam 63rd

    1. Shikhar
    2. Gopurams
    3. Devalayas
    4. Mandaps
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Gopurams

    Gopurams are imposing entrance towers that serve as prominent features of South Indian temple complexes.

  2. Name the location of the musical inscription containing groups of musical notes arranged for the benefit of his pupils by a king in the seventh or eighth century CE.

    Asked in: UPSC CDS 1 2023

    1. Ennayiram
    2. Uttaramerur
    3. Siyyamangalam
    4. Kudumiyamalai
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Kudumiyamalai

    - The Kudumiyamalai inscription is a famous example of ancient Indian musical notation. - It dates back to the Pallava period (7th-8th century CE).

  3. Which one of the following has been an important early Chola painting discovered at the Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur in 1931?

    Asked in: UPSC CDS 1 2024

    1. Buddha with Chauri-bearers on either side
    2. Shiva as Yoga-Dakshinamurti
    3. Yakshi Kali
    4. Parshvanatha with snake-hood on a lion- throne
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Shiva as Yoga-Dakshinamurti

    The Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur, built by Rajaraja I, is renowned for its Chola period frescoes discovered in 1931 in the circumambulatory passage around the main shrine. These paintings are significant examples of early Chola art. Among the subjects depicted in these frescoes are various forms of Shiva, including Shiva as Nataraja, Shiva receiving Sukracharya's curse, Shiva as Dakshinamurti, and scenes from the life of Sundarar. Other panels show royal processions. Of the options provided, "Shiva as Yoga-Dakshinamurti" is a known subject found among the early Chola paintings at the Brihadisvara Temple.

  4. With which classical Indian dance form, the terms Tagananam, Jagananam, Dhagananam and Sammishram are associated ?

    Asked in: MPSC CS Prelims 2012

    1. Bharatnatyam
    2. Kathak
    3. Kuchipudi
    4. Mohiniyattam
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Bharatnatyam

    These terms are rhythmic syllables (jati or solkattu) used in the rhythmic sequences (adavus) of Bharatanatyam. They are part of the spoken rhythmic patterns that dancers perform or are accompanied by.

  5. Consider the following two statements consisting of Assertion (A) and Reason (R) and select your answer using the codes given below. Assertion (A) : The temple was not merely a place of worship; it filled a large place in the cultural and economic life of the Tamil people Reasoning (R) : Its construction and maintenance offered employment to number of architects and craftsmen.

    Asked in: TNPSC CS Prelims 2017

    1. Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
    2. Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
    3. (A) is true and (R) is false
    4. (A) is false and (R) is true
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)

    Temples in South India, particularly during periods like the Chola era, were not just religious centers but played a crucial role in the socio-economic structure. They owned vast tracts of land, employed numerous people, and served as centers for cultural activities, banking, and education.

  6. Kalamkari painting refers to

    Asked in: UPSC IAS 2015

    1. a hand-painted cotton textile in South India
    2. a handmade drawing on bamboo handicrafts in North-East India
    3. a block-painted woollen cloth in Western Himalayan region of India
    4. a hand-painted decorative silk cloth in North- Western India
    Show answer

    Answer: A. a hand-painted cotton textile in South India

    Kalamkari is an ancient style of hand painting done on cotton fabric with a 'kalam' (pen), using natural dyes. It is primarily practiced in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana in South India.

  7. Which one of the following Indian classical dances has steps comprising of Adavus : Tanganam, Jagananam, Dhaganam and Sammisram ?

    Asked in: UPSC Combined Section Officer 2021 22

    1. Kuchipudi
    2. Mohiniyattam
    3. Sattriya
    4. Manipuri
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Kuchipudi

    The specific Adavus mentioned (Tanganam, Jagananam, Dhaganam, Sammisram) are characteristic steps of the Kuchipudi classical dance form.

Chola Naval Power and Overseas Expeditions

  1. Which one of the following was not a port of the Chola Empire?

    Asked in: APSC CCE Prelims Exam 2006

    1. Kaveripattanam
    2. Mahabalipuram
    3. Shaliyar
    4. Tamralipti
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Tamralipti

    The Chola Empire's maritime activities were concentrated in South India, Sri Lanka, and extending influence into Southeast Asia. Key ports were located on the eastern coast of peninsular India within their territory.

  2. In which Cholas king started Naval Army ?

    Asked in: CGPSC Prelims Exam 2014

    1. Rajendra Chola
    2. Prantak Chola
    3. Rajaraja I
    4. Rajaraja II
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Rajaraja I

    The Chola dynasty reached its zenith under Rajaraja I and his son Rajendra I, expanding significantly through military campaigns, including impressive overseas ventures supported by a strong navy.

  3. The Srivijaya ruler, who completed the construction of the Buddhist Vihara started by his father at Nagapattana during the reign of Rajaraja I, was—

    Asked in: UPPCS Prelims 2009

    1. Samaragravira
    2. Balaputradeva
    3. Maravijayottunga Varman
    4. Trailokyaraja
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Maravijayottunga Varman

    Historical records, particularly the Anaimangalam copper plates issued by Rajendra I, mention the construction of the Choodamani Vihara at Nagapattanam. They state that the father of Maravijayottunga Varman, Cudamanivarman, a king of Kataha (Keda in Malaysia), had started the construction with the permission of Rajaraja I. His son, Maravijayottunga Varman, completed the Vihara during the reign of Rajendra I and secured a grant of the village of Anaimangalam for its maintenance.

  4. The Chola navy was known for its expedition against : (A) Cambodia and Laos (B) Vietnam (C) Indonesia and Sri Lanka (D) Maldives

    Asked in: opsc 2025 2025

    1. Cambodia and Laos
    2. Vietnam
    3. Indonesia and Sri Lanka
    4. Maldives
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Indonesia and Sri Lanka

    The Chola navy was renowned for its expeditions against Indonesia (parts of Srivijaya) and Sri Lanka. This demonstrates their maritime power and imperial ambitions beyond the Indian subcontinent.

  5. Which one of the following Chola Kings destroyed the Chera navy at Trivandrum and then captured the Pandya King?

    Asked in: RO ARO pre 2023

    1. Rajendra I
    2. Rajadhiraja
    3. Rajaraja I
    4. Kulottunga
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Rajaraja I

    Rajaraja I was instrumental in asserting Chola supremacy by defeating the Cheras and Pandyas, thereby consolidating Chola control over South India.

Chola Society, Economy, and Agrarian relations

  1. Consider the following statements about merchant guilds of South India : 1. Ayyavole merchant guild was originally established in Aihole. 2. Manigraman merchant guild was subordinated to the Anjuvannam merchant guild in the 13th century. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Asked in: UPSC NDA 2 2018

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Show answer

    Answer: A. 1 only

    Statement 1: The Ayyavole (also known as the Five Hundred of Ayyavole or Ainnurruvar) was a powerful merchant guild in medieval South India. Historical evidence strongly suggests its origins are linked to Aihole, a prominent centre in Karnataka, from which it gets its name. Thus, statement 1 is correct. Statement 2: Manigraman and Anjuvannam were both significant merchant guilds operating in South India and Southeast Asia, particularly along the coasts. While they often coexisted and traded in the same regions, and sometimes even jointly, historical sources do not generally describe Manigraman as being subordinated to Anjuvannam in the 13th century. They were more often seen as parallel or distinct entities. Thus, statement 2 is incorrect.

  2. Which of the following dynasties frequently assigned to the ladies high ranking positions inadministration ?

    Asked in: UPPSC Upper Mains 2007

    1. Chola
    2. Chalukya
    3. Pala
    4. Sena
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Chalukya

    While instances of women in power existed in various dynasties, the Chalukyas appear to have provided relatively more opportunities for women to exercise power and influence in administration and public affairs compared to the other options listed. Examples include queens administering territories.

  3. Consider the following statements in relation to the 'The Five Hundred' of the Chola Kingdom: (i) 'The Five Hundred' was a group of soldiers chosen from the army and navy. (ii) 'The Five Hundred' was a guild of merchants that traded across the South-East Asia. (iii) 'The Five Hundred' was operating with no single leader and no head office. (iv) 'The Five Hundred' was operating with a leader chosen by the King and head office was located at Nagapattinam. Which of the above statements is/are correct?

    Asked in: GS and General English JE Civil PWD 05 2025

    1. Only (i)
    2. Only (ii)
    3. (i), (ii) and (iv)
    4. None of the above
    Show answer

    Answer: D. None of the above

    The question asks to identify correct statements about 'The Five Hundred' (Anjuvannam) of the Chola Kingdom. This requires knowledge of Chola-era merchant guilds, their composition, and their trade activities.

Geographical context and early settlements of South India

  1. Tamilakam, the name of the ancient Tamil country, included besides Tamil Nadu parts of present day:

    Asked in: UPSC Geoscientist 2021

    1. Andhra Pradesh and Kerala
    2. Karnataka and Kerala
    3. Kerala and Odisha
    4. Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Andhra Pradesh and Kerala

    The historical region of Tamilakam was home to the three major Tamil kingdoms of the Sangam Age: the Cheras (primarily in modern Kerala), the Cholas (in the Kaveri delta and surrounding regions), and the Pandyas (in the southern parts). Its boundaries were dynamic but generally extended beyond the political boundaries of present-day Tamil Nadu.

  2. In _______ however, the Iron Age immediately succeeded the Stone Age, and we find no traces of the intermediate Copper Age.

    Asked in: MPSC CS Prelims 2016

    1. Northern India
    2. Western India
    3. Southern India
    4. Eastern India
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Southern India

    While a Chalcolithic (Copper-Stone Age) phase existed in many parts of India, its presence and significance varied regionally. In certain areas of South India, the Iron Age seems to have followed the Neolithic without a distinct, widespread Copper/Bronze Age, representing a different trajectory of technological development.

  3. Tamilakam was the name of the ancient Tamil country that included

    Asked in: UPSC CAPF 2020

    1. present-day Tamil Nadu as well as parts of Sri Lanka
    2. land between present day Tirupati hills and the southernmost tip of peninsula
    3. present-day Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra
    4. present day Kerala, Telangana and Karnataka
    Show answer

    Answer: B. land between present day Tirupati hills and the southernmost tip of peninsula

    Tamilakam refers to the historical Tamil country, traditionally defined by specific geographical boundaries in the southern part of the Indian subcontinent.

  4. One consistent feature found in the history of southern India was the growth of small regional kingdoms rather than large empires because of

    Asked in: UPPCS Prelims 1999

    1. the absence of minerals like iron
    2. too many divisions in the social structure
    3. the absence of vast areas of fertile land
    4. the scarcity of manpower
    Show answer

    Answer: B. too many divisions in the social structure

    - Options A, C, and D are factually incorrect regarding resources and population in South India. - Option B is a broad statement that can be interpreted in the context of historical factors like the strength of local institutions, social stratification, or regional identities potentially hindering sustained central imperial control and favouring the persistence of regional kingdoms. - Historical explanations for the pattern in South India often include geographical features and the interplay of multiple competing regional dynasties, alongside the strength of local structures.

  5. From which Megalithic burial site from the South remains of charcoal have been found? - (5) Question not attempted

    Asked in: Archaeology and Museums Dept. Exam 2023 (Exploration and Excavation Officer) 2023

    1. Niramakulam
    2. Poothamkara
    3. Poredam
    4. Arippa
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Poothamkara

    Poothamkara is a known megalithic site in South India where charcoal has been excavated.

  6. What is/are the correct answer(s) regarding Vijayanagar Empire?

    Asked in: Computer Programmer 2021

    1. It was founded in 1336
    2. It was founded by Harihara
    3. It was founded by Bukka
    4. All of the above
    Show answer

    Answer: D. All of the above

    This question assesses knowledge about the Vijayanagar Empire, a significant historical kingdom in South India. It requires remembering key details like its founding year, founders, and their relationships.

  7. From which of the following dynasties of Vijayanagar empire, Raja Krishnadeva Raya belonged to ? A) Tuluva B) Saluva C) Aravidu D) Sangama

    Asked in: DENTAL SURGEON (SCREENING) EXAMINATION 2023

    1. Tuluva
    2. Saluva
    3. Aravidu
    4. Sangama
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Tuluva

    The Tuluva dynasty (c. 1505–1570) is considered a significant period in Vijayanagar history, with Raja Krishnadeva Raya being its most prominent ruler.

Imperial Cholas: Political expansion, administrative system, and local self-government

  1. The Chola age was most famous for

    Asked in: BPSC Prelims Exam 63rd

    1. village assemblies
    2. war with the Rashtrakutas
    3. trade with Ceylon
    4. advancement of Tamil culture
    Show answer

    Answer: A. village assemblies

    The decentralized yet well-structured administration at the village level through assemblies is a defining feature of the Chola empire.

  2. Who was the founder of the Chola Dynasty?

    Asked in: BPSC Prelims Exam 67th Cancelled

    1. Vijayalaya
    2. Karikala
    3. Aditya I
    4. Rajaraja I
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Vijayalaya

    Vijayalaya founded the Chola dynasty by capturing Thanjavur in the 9th century AD.

  3. Who among the following Chola kings encouraged the Sailendra ruler of Sri Vijaya to build a Buddhist Vihara in Negapatnam?

    Asked in: UPSC CDS 1 2024

    1. Parantaka I
    2. Rajaraja I
    3. Rajendra I
    4. Kulottunga I
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Rajaraja I

    During the reign of Rajaraja I (985-1014 AD), the Sailendra ruler of Sri Vijaya, Mara Vijayatunggavarman, built a Buddhist monastery (Vihara) named Chudamani Vihara at Negapatnam (Nagapattinam) in Tamil Nadu. Rajaraja I patronized this initiative by granting the village of Anaimangalam for the maintenance of the Vihara.

  4. Match the names of the kings given in Column I with their appropriate dynasties given in Column II and provide the correct answer from the options given below : Column I Column II 1. Rajendra a. Pallava 2. Mahendravarman b. Hoysala 3. Amogavarsha c. Rashtrakuta 4. Vishnuvardhana d. Chola

    Asked in: HAS Prelims 2019

    1. 1-d, 2-a, 3-c, 4-b
    2. 1-a, 2-d, 3-c, 4-b
    3. 1-d, 2-a, 3-d, 4-c
    4. 1-c, 2-b, 3-d, 4-a
    Show answer

    Answer: A. 1-d, 2-a, 3-c, 4-b

    - Rajendra Chola I was a powerful ruler of the Chola dynasty, known for his military campaigns and administrative reforms. (1-d) - Mahendravarman I was a significant ruler of the Pallava dynasty in South India, known for his contributions to art and literature. (2-a) - Amogavarsha I was one of the most notable emperors of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, whose reign is known for peace and cultural development. (3-c) - Vishnuvardhana, originally a Jain but later converted to Vaishnavism, was a key ruler of the Hoysala dynasty, known for expanding its territory and building temples. (4-b)

  5. Which of the following was the name given to village assemblies in the Chola kingdom ?

    Asked in: HAS Prelims 2019

    1. Nadu
    2. Nattar
    3. Sabha
    4. Ur
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Sabha

    The Chola administration was characterized by a well-organized system of local self-government at the village level.

  6. Choose the correct chronological order :

    Asked in: TNPSC CS Prelims 2022

    1. Rajadhiraja I, Parantaka I, Kulothunga I, Rajaraja I
    2. Kulothunga I, Parantaka I, Rajadhiraja I, Rajaditya I
    3. Parantaka I, Rajadhiraja I, Kulothunga I, Rajaraja I
    4. Parantaka I, Rajaraja I, Rajadhiraja I, Kulothunga I
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Parantaka I, Rajaraja I, Rajadhiraja I, Kulothunga I

    This question requires knowledge of the succession and timeline of prominent rulers of the Chola dynasty, particularly during its imperial phase.

  7. In the context of the history of India, consider the following pairs: Term Description : Land, revenue from which was set 1. Eriapart for the main tenance of the patti village tank 2. Taniy‐ : Villages donated to a single Brahurs min or a group of Brahmins 3. : Colleges generally attached to the Ghatikas temples Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

    Asked in: UPSC IAS 2016

    1. 1 and 2
    2. 3 only
    3. 2 and 3
    4. 1 and 3
    Show answer

    Answer: D. 1 and 3

    Eripatti is linked to tank maintenance. Taniyurs are self-governing large villages/units. Ghatikas are temple-attached colleges. Brahmadeya/Agrahara are land grants to Brahmins.

Pallava Administration and societal organization

  1. Which among the following Pallava rulers assumed the titles of 'Chitrakarppuli' (Tiger among painters) and 'Chettakari' (Temple Builder) ? - (5) Question not attempted

    Asked in: Deputy Jailor 2024

    1. Mahendra Varman I
    2. Narsingh I
    3. Mahendra Varman II
    4. Parmeshwar Varman I
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Mahendra Varman I

    Understanding the achievements and titles of prominent rulers from ancient Indian dynasties, particularly the Pallavas, is relevant for ancient Indian history.

  2. Which of the following Pallava rulers wrote ‘Mattavilas Prahasana’ ? I

    Asked in: Forest Guard Examination 2022

    1. Narsimhavarman I
    2. Mahendravarman I
    3. Dantivarman
    4. Narsimhavarman II
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Mahendravarman I

    Mahendravarman I was a significant ruler of the Pallava dynasty known for his literary and artistic contributions, including the authorship of 'Mattavilasa Prahasana'.

  3. Which of the following pairs is NOT correctly matched ? (Ruler) (Dynasty)

    Asked in: UPPSC ACF RFO gs 1 2021

    1. Govind - III - Gurjara Pratiihara
    2. Vatsaraja - Chola
    3. Devapala - Rashtrakuta
    4. Narasinghavarman – I - Pallava
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Vatsaraja - Chola

    Vatsaraja belonged to the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty, not the Chola dynasty.

  4. Which of the following pairs is NOT correctly matched ? (Ruler) (Dynasty) - Govind – III - Gurjara Pratihara - Vatsaraja - Chola - Devapala - Rashtrakuta - Narasinghavarman – I - Pallava

    Asked in: UPPSC ACF RFO gs 1 2021

    1. Govind – III - Gurjara Pratihara
    2. Vatsaraja - Chola
    3. Devapala - Rashtrakuta
    4. Narasinghavarman – I - Pallava
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Vatsaraja - Chola

    Vatsaraja belonged to the Gurjara Pratihara dynasty, not the Chola dynasty.

Pallava Art and Architecture (rock-cut and structural temples)

  1. The royal portraits of Simhavishnu and Mahendravarman are found in which cave temple at Mamallapuram?

    Asked in: UPSC CDS 1 2024

    1. Varaha Cave
    2. Ramanuja Cave
    3. Adivaraha Cave
    4. Trimurti Cave
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Adivaraha Cave

    The Adivaraha Cave Temple at Mamallapuram is notable for containing sculpted portraits of the Pallava kings Simhavishnu (c. 575-600 AD) and his son Mahendravarman I (c. 600-630 AD), along with their consorts. These portraits are considered important historical depictions of the royal family.

  2. Which of the following are the architectural splendours built by the Pallavas? I. Kailasanathar Temple, Kanchipuram II. Kotikal Mandapam, Mahabalipuram III. Airavateswara Temple, Darasuram

    Asked in: GPSC Prelims CSP 1 2021

    1. Only I and II
    2. Only II and III
    3. Only I and III
    4. I, II and III
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Only I and II

    Kailasanathar Temple (Kanchipuram) and Kotikal Mandapam (Mahabalipuram) are Pallava constructions. Airavateswara Temple (Darasuram) is a Chola construction.

  3. Who built the *Seven Rathas* Temple located in Mahabalipuram?

    Asked in: GPSC Prelims CSP 1 2023

    1. Cholas
    2. Western Chalukyas
    3. Pallavas
    4. Kakatiyas
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Pallavas

    The monolithic temples at Mahabalipuram, including the Rathas, are a hallmark of Pallava art and architecture, particularly from the reign of Narasimhavarman I.

  4. Who among the following constructed the Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram?

    Asked in: UPSC CBI DSP LDCE 2023

    1. Simhavishnu
    2. Umadevi
    3. Nandivarman
    4. Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha

    The Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram is a famous structural temple built during the reign of the Pallava king Narasimhavarman II, who is also known as Rajasimha (ruled c. 695-722 CE). It is one of the finest examples of Pallava architecture.

  5. The largest of the Pallava Rathas is—

    Asked in: UPPCS Prelims 2009

    1. Arjuna
    2. Bhima
    3. Dharmaraja
    4. Draupadi
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Dharmaraja

    Among the Pancha Rathas (Five Rathas) at Mahabalipuram, attributed to the Pallava period, the Dharmaraja Ratha is the largest and most complete. It is a three-storeyed structure carved from a single granite rock.

  6. W ho among the following were responsible for the creation of Ratha monuments at Mamallapuram ?

    Asked in: UPPCS Prelims 2011

    1. Cholas
    2. Pallavas
    3. Pandyas
    4. Chalukyas
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Pallavas

    The famous Ratha monuments at Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram) are exquisite examples of rock- cut architecture from the Pallava dynasty. These monolithic structures, carved out of single rocks, represent different architectural styles and are believed to be models of temples.

  7. Rock-cut- temples of Mahabalipuram were built by :

    Asked in: UPPCS Prelims 1994

    1. Pallavas
    2. Cholas
    3. Chalukyas
    4. Rashtrakutas
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Pallavas

    The group of monuments at Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram), including the famous rock-cut temples (Rathas) and cave temples, were built during the reign of the Pallava dynasty in the 7th and 8th centuries, particularly under kings Narasimhavarman I and Narasimhavarman II.

Religious developments in South India (Bhakti movement, Saivism, Vaishnavism)

  1. What is Kalaripayattu according to India's culture and tradition?

    Asked in: GPSC Prelims CSP 1 2018

    1. It is an ancient Bhakti cult of Shaivism still prevalent in some parts of Southern India.
    2. It is an ancient style bronze and brasswork still found in southern part of Coromandel area.
    3. It is an ancient form of dance-drama and a living tradition in the northern part of Malabar.
    4. It is an ancient martial art and a living tradition in some parts of Southern India.
    Show answer

    Answer: D. It is an ancient martial art and a living tradition in some parts of Southern India.

    Kalaripayattu is considered one of the oldest fighting systems in existence and encompasses strikes, kicks, weapons practice, and healing techniques.

  2. Who said, "Tamizhodu Isaippaadal Maranthariyen"?

    Asked in: TNPSC CS Prelims 2022

    1. Thirugnana Sambandar
    2. Thirunaavukkarasar
    3. Sundarar
    4. Manikkavasagar
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Thirunaavukkarasar

    This question is about recognizing a significant quote from a prominent figure in Tamil devotional literature, specifically the Shaivite Nayanmars who composed the Tevaram hymns.

  3. Who among the following was a lady Alvar Saint ?

    Asked in: UPPCS Prelims 2009

    1. Andal
    2. Madhura Kavi
    3. Perumal
    4. Tirupan
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Andal

    The Alvars were Tamil poet-saints who were instrumental in the Bhakti movement in South India (6th-9th centuries CE). There are traditionally twelve Alvars. Among these twelve, Andal is the only female saint.

  4. Vaishnavism was propagated by Alvar saints of Tamil Nadu. Who was the only female Sadhvi among the Alvar saints?

    Asked in: mppsc 2025 2025

    1. Nammalvar
    2. Poigai
    3. Thirumangayi
    4. Andal
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Andal

    The Alvar saints were devotees of Vishnu who spread Vaishnavism in Tamil Nadu. Among the twelve Alvar saints, Andal is the only woman.

  5. With which saints is the treatise 'Nalairadiviprabandham' related ?

    Asked in: School Lecturer (Sanskrit Edu.) 2020

    1. from Alvar saints
    2. from Nayanar saints
    3. from Ramanuja saints
    4. from Sangam era saints
    Show answer

    Answer: A. from Alvar saints

    The Bhakti movement in South India saw the rise of the Alvars and Nayanars, who significantly contributed to the development of devotional literature and theology in Hinduism.

Rise and consolidation of the Pallavas of Kanchi

  1. Which one of the following is chronologically correct?

    Asked in: APSC CCE Prelims Exam 2006

    1. Satsvahanas-Pallavas -Chalukyas of Kalyani - Rashtrakutas
    2. Rashtrakutas-Pallavas -Chalukyas of Kalyani - Satsvahanas
    3. Pallavas-Satsvahanas -Rashtrakutas - Chalukyas of Kalyani
    4. Chalukyas of Kalyani -Satsvahanas - Rashtrakutas -Pallavas
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Satsvahanas-Pallavas -Chalukyas of Kalyani - Rashtrakutas

    The standard chronological sequence is Satavahanas, followed by Pallavas (contemporaries with Chalukyas of Badami), then Rashtrakutas, and finally Chalukyas of Kalyani.

  2. Which of the following dynasties of South India issued their documents first in Prakrit and later in Sanskrit ?

    Asked in: UPSC CDS 2 2023

    1. The Cholas of Tamil Nadu
    2. The Pandyas of the post-Sangam Age
    3. The Pallavas of Tondaimandalam
    4. The Gangas of Kalinganagara
    Show answer

    Answer: C. The Pallavas of Tondaimandalam

    - The Pallavas were a significant dynasty in South India from the 3rd to 9th centuries CE. - Prakrit was an administrative language in early South Indian states under Satavahana influence, which preceded and influenced the Pallavas. - Sanskrit gained prominence as a language of royal inscriptions and literature during the Gupta period and its influence spread across the subcontinent, leading to its adoption by various dynasties including the Pallavas.

  3. The Pallava capital was located at which place?

    Asked in: GPSC Prelims CSP 1 2023

    1. Gangaikonda Cholapuram
    2. Kanchipuram
    3. Chennapatnam
    4. Tiruchirapalli
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Kanchipuram

    Kanchipuram was a significant political and cultural hub during the reign of the Pallavas.

  4. Given below are two statements : Statement I : Kanchi was the famous city of South India, center of education and capital of Pallavas. Statement II : Kanchi's famous scholars - Mayuravarma, Vatsyayan, Dingnag and HienTsang- were there. In the light of the above statements, choose the correct answer from the options given below :

    Asked in: HAS Prelims 2022

    1. Both Statements I and II are true.
    2. Both Statements I and II are false.
    3. Statement I is true but Statement II is false.
    4. Statement I is false but Statement II is true.
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Statement I is true but Statement II is false.

    - Statement I is true: Kanchipuram was the glorious capital of the Pallava dynasty for centuries (4th to 9th CE). It was a major cultural and religious center, and foreign visitors like Xuanzang noted its importance as a hub of learning, particularly for Buddhist and Hindu studies. - Statement II is false: - Mayuravarma was the founder of the Kadamba dynasty in Karnataka (c. 4th CE), not associated with Kanchi. - Vatsyayana is typically associated with the Gupta period and North India (e.g., author of Kamasutra). While there might be other individuals with the same name, none are definitively famous scholars of Kanchi in this context. - Dingnag (Dignaga) was a major Buddhist logician (c. 5th CE), often associated with Nalanda or Andhra, though Kanchi was a Buddhist center he might have visited. He is not typically listed as a scholar from Kanchi in the same vein as scholars born or primarily based there. - Hien Tsang (Xuanzang) was a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim who visited Kanchi in the 7th century and wrote about it, but he was not a scholar of Kanchi; he was a foreign visitor studying there.

  5. Chinese pilgrim Yuan Chwang visited Kanchi in

    Asked in: TNPSC CS Prelims 2014

    1. A.D. 640
    2. A.D. 500
    3. A.D. 150
    4. A.D. 720
    Show answer

    Answer: A. A.D. 640

    - Yuan Chwang (Xuanzang) was a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim. - He visited India in the 7th century CE (c. 627-643 CE). - His visit to Kanchipuram occurred around A.D. 640.

  6. Which inscription proved that Pallavas replaced the Ikshvakus of Vijayapuri ?

    Asked in: APPSC Miscellaneous 2023

    1. The Manchilkallu inscription of Pallava Sim‐ havarman
    2. Nasic record about Sriparvata
    3. Inscription from Nagarjunakonda
    4. Nandampudi Grant
    Show answer

    Answer: A. The Manchilkallu inscription of Pallava Sim‐ havarman

    The Manchilkallu inscription from the reign of Pallava Simhavarman (likely Simhavarman I) found near Palnadu region provides evidence of Pallava presence and authority in areas previously under Ikshvaku control, indicating their ascendancy and replacement of the Ikshvaku dynasty in the Krishna valley around the 4th century CE.

  7. The capital of the Pallava rulers was

    Asked in: WBCS Main Paper 3 2023

    1. Hampi
    2. Dwarka
    3. Kanchipuram
    4. Ujjain
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Kanchipuram

    Kanchipuram was a major political, religious, and cultural centre under the Pallavas, renowned for its magnificent temples and as a seat of learning.

Sangam Age: Political structure of Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas

  1. Consider the following statements about Madurai, the capital city of the Pandya kingdom :

    Asked in: UPSC CDS 1 2024

    1. 1 only
    2. 1 and 2 only
    3. 2 and 3 only
    4. 1, 2 and 3
    Show answer

    Answer: D. 1, 2 and 3

    It has been described in Maduraikkanchi as a large grand city, enclosed by walls on three sides and the Vaigai river on the fourth side. The Arthashastra mentions it as a centre of fine cotton textiles. Other literary sources describe it as a major craft centre. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? Madurai was a prominent capital of the Pandya kingdom during the Sangam Age and continued to be an important cultural, economic, and political centre in subsequent periods of South Indian history, known for its literature, trade, and crafts.

  2. Which of the following pair (A State of South India from 6th to 12th century and its Capital) is not correctly matched ?

    Asked in: CGPSC Prelims Exam 2016

    1. Pallava – Kanchipuram
    2. Pandya – Madurai
    3. Chera – Puducheri
    4. Chola – Tanjvur
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Chera – Puducheri

    The Cheras ruled parts of present-day Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Puducheri has no historical link as a Chera capital.

  3. With reference to Sangam period which of the following pair is/are not correct

    Asked in: TNPSC CS Prelims 2019

    1. Tramiradesa Sanghata - Confederacy of Tamil States
    2. Udiyanseral - First Chera Mannan
    3. Madurai Kanchi - Mangudi Marudan
    4. Naura - Tondi
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Tramiradesa Sanghata - Confederacy of Tamil States

    The term 'Tramiradesa Sanghata' is not historically recognized as the formal name for the political arrangement of the Tamil kingdoms during the Sangam period.

  4. Which of the following titles are related with Pandyas? (i) Minavar (ii) Villavar (iii) Kudavar (iv) Panchavar

    Asked in: TNPSC CS Prelims 2022

    1. (i) only
    2. (ii) only
    3. (i) and (iv) only
    4. (ii) and (iii) only
    Show answer

    Answer: C. (i) and (iv) only

    The question tests the knowledge of traditional titles and epithets associated with the ancient Tamil dynasties (Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas) mentioned in Sangam literature and later historical records.

  5. The temple for "Kannagi" was constructed by

    Asked in: TNPSC CS Prelims 2024

    1. Karikalan
    2. Senguttuvan
    3. Ugraperuvazhudhi
    4. Nediyon
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Senguttuvan

    The question refers to a significant event in the Tamil epic Silappadikaram, asking about the patron king responsible for constructing a temple for the epic's protagonist, Kannagi.

  6. Udiyanjiral belongs to which dynasty ?

    Asked in: UKPSC CS Prelims 2021

    1. Chera dynasty
    2. Pandyas dynasty
    3. Chola dynasty
    4. Satavahana dynasty
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Chera dynasty

    Udiyanjiral, specifically Udiyanjiral Nedunjeral Adan, is mentioned in Sangam literature as one of the early kings of the Chera dynasty of ancient Tamilakam. The Cheras ruled over the region corresponding to modern-day Kerala and parts of Tamil Nadu.

  7. During Sangam period Kon, Ko and Mannan is synonyms of:

    Asked in: RPSC RAS Prelims 2010

    1. Prime Minister
    2. Finance Minister
    3. Army Chief
    4. King
    Show answer

    Answer: D. King

    These are Tamil words found in Sangam literature referring to the ruler or monarch. 'Ko' is a common root word meaning king, often appearing as 'Kon' or 'Mannan'. Other terms for king included Ventan and Iraivan.

Sangam Literature and Cultural contributions

  1. The epic, Silappadikaram refers to the

    Asked in: UPSC CDS 2 2016

    1. story of Rama
    2. Jaina elements in the storyline
    3. culture of Sri Lankan Buddhists
    4. cult of Shakti worship
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Jaina elements in the storyline

    Silappadikaram is one of the five great Tamil epics. Its author, Ilango Adigal, is traditionally identified as a Jain ascetic. The epic incorporates various religious traditions prevalent in ancient Tamilakam, including Jainism, Buddhism, and different forms of Hindu worship, but the author's background and the narrative often reflect Jain philosophical perspectives and values, particularly regarding karma and asceticism. The central character, Kannagi, ultimately attains moksha, a concept understood within the religious context depicted, including Jainism.

  2. Which river is praised in the fifth century Tamil epic, _Silappadikaram_?

    Asked in: UPSC CDS 2 2017

    1. Cauvery
    2. Godavari
    3. Saraswati
    4. Ganges
    Show answer

    Answer: A. Cauvery

    Silappadikaram, composed by Ilango Adigal, is set in the ancient Tamil kingdoms. A significant portion of the epic takes place in the Chola country, where the Cauvery (Kaveri) river is the lifeblood of agriculture and civilization. The epic describes the beauty and significance of the river, depicting it as a goddess and a source of prosperity for the land and its people. For example, Canto 10 describes the city of Puhar located at the mouth of the Cauvery and praises the river extensively.

  3. The Tolkappiyam is

    Asked in: UPSC CDS 2 2022

    1. A work of grammar.
    2. A Tamil poem in praise of Rajendra Chola.
    3. An ancient didactic work in Tamil.
    4. A drama composed by a Chera King.
    Show answer

    Answer: A. A work of grammar.

    It is an ancient work of Tamil literature, traditionally dated between the 3rd century BCE and 5th century CE, providing insights into early Tamil language, literature, and social life.

  4. Who is the author credited with composing the classical Tamil epic 'Silappatikaram' ?

    Asked in: HAS Prelims 2019

    1. Agasty
    2. Ilango Adigal
    3. Chithalai Chathanar
    4. Tholkappiyyar
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Ilango Adigal

    - 'Silappatikaram' (The Tale of the Anklet) is one of the five great epics of Tamil literature (Aimperunkappiyam). - It is a story about Kannagi, who seeks vengeance on the Pandya king for the death of her husband Kovalan. - Ilango Adigal is traditionally believed to be the author, identified as a Jain monk and the younger brother of the Chera king Senguttuvan.

  5. The Sangam text Tolkappiyam is a work on

    Asked in: JPSC CS Prelims 2024

    1. astronomy
    2. grammar
    3. music
    4. medicine
    Show answer

    Answer: B. grammar

    Tolkappiyam is the oldest surviving work of Tamil literature and a foundational text of Tamil grammar and poetics. It is believed to have been composed between the 3rd century BCE and 5th century CE. It systematically deals with phonology (Ezhuttadikaram), morphology and syntax (Solladikaram), and poetics and various aspects of Tamil life and culture (Poruladikaram).

  6. In Sangam literature, the fertile agricultural land was called

    Asked in: KPSC KAS Prelims 2014

    1. Palai
    2. Marudam
    3. Mullai
    4. Neydal
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Marudam

    The five tinais are Kurinji (hilly/mountainous region), Mullai (pastoral/forest region), Marudam (agricultural plains), Neydal (coastal region), and Palai (arid/wasteland). Each tinai had specific characteristics related to geography, occupation, flora, fauna, and deities.

  7. Consider the following statements about Sangam Literature. The narrative texts are called Melkanakku. The didactic texts are called Kilkanakku. Thirukkural is a major Sangam text. Many Sangam texts were the works of brahmana scholars. Which of the following are correct?

    Asked in: OPSC CS Prelims 2022

    1. 1, 2 and 3
    2. 1, 2 and 4
    3. 2, 3 and 4
    4. Only 1 and 4
    Show answer

    Answer: A. 1, 2 and 3

    Sangam literature is traditionally divided into Melkanakku (Eighteen Major Anthologies), primarily comprising longer narrative and descriptive poems, and Kilkanakku (Eighteen Minor Anthologies), which are mainly didactic works focusing on ethics and morals. Thirukkural, a renowned work by Tiruvalluvar, is a prominent example of a Kilkanakku text and is considered a major work of the Sangam period.

Sangam Society, Economy, and Trade (including Roman connections)

  1. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the code given below the Lists: List-I (Term) Kurinchi Palai Neytal Mullai List-II (Meaning) 1. Pastoral region 2. Seashore 3. Arid region 4. Mountainous region

    Asked in: UPSC CDS 2 2016

    1. A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
    2. A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4
    3. A-4, B-3, C-2, D-1
    4. A-4, B-2, C-3, D-1
    Show answer

    Answer: C. A-4, B-3, C-2, D-1

    - Kurinchi corresponds to mountainous landscapes. - Palai corresponds to arid or desert landscapes. - Neytal corresponds to coastal or seashore landscapes. - Mullai corresponds to pastoral or forest landscapes. - The fifth landscape type, Marutam, corresponds to agricultural or riverine plains, but is not included in this list.

  2. According to the Tamil Sangam texts, who among the following were the large landowners?

    Asked in: UPSC CDS 2 2018

    1. Gahapatis
    2. Uzhavars
    3. Adimais
    4. Vellalars
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Vellalars

    The Sangam society in the Tamil region was characterized by a social hierarchy based on land ownership and occupation. Vellalars were at the top of the rural social structure due to their control over land.

  3. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given below the lists : List I List II (Ethnic Territorial (Related Occupational Segment) Pattern)

    Asked in: UPSC CDS 2 2019

    1. Maruta Makkal 1. Pastoralists
    2. Kuravan Makkal 2. Fishing people
    3. Mullai Makkal 3. Ploughmen
    4. Neytal Makkal 4. Hill people Code : A. A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2 B. A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3 C. A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2 D. A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Mullai Makkal 3. Ploughmen

    This question relates to the ancient Tamil classification of land divisions (Thinai) and the occupations of people living in those regions, as described in classical Tamil literature like the Tolkappiyam. - Marutam (A) corresponds to agricultural plains, inhabited by people engaged in ploughing and farming (Ploughmen - 3). - Kurinci (B) corresponds to hilly or mountainous regions, inhabited by hunters and gatherers (Hill people - 4). - Mullai (C) corresponds to pastoral tracts or forests, inhabited by pastoralists and those engaged in cattle rearing (Pastoralists - 1). - Neytal (D) corresponds to coastal regions, inhabited by fishermen and salt manufacturers (Fishing people - 2).

  4. Name the site that gives us valuable information about India's maritime links on the Coromandel coast.

    Asked in: UPSC CDS 2 2019

    1. Bharukachchha
    2. Karur
    3. Arikamedu
    4. Anuradhapura
    Show answer

    Answer: C. Arikamedu

    Archaeological evidence from coastal sites is vital for understanding ancient maritime trade networks.

  5. Which one of the following was an important Pandya port, celebrated for its pearls in Sangam poems and Greek accounts?

    Asked in: UPSC CDS 2 2021

    1. Muchiri
    2. Korkai
    3. Puhar
    4. Arikamedu
    Show answer

    Answer: B. Korkai

    The pearl industry was a significant source of wealth for the Pandya rulers and made Korkai a prominent center for trade, exporting pearls to various parts of the ancient world, including Rome.

  6. Which one of the following pairs of term and meaning is correctly matched?

    Asked in: UPSC Geoscientist 2021

    1. Gahapati : Slaves
    2. Adimai : Master of a household
    3. Vellalar : Land-less labour
    4. Uzhavar : Ploughmen
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Uzhavar : Ploughmen

    Understanding social and economic terms used in ancient Indian texts is important for historical context.

  7. The Anniruvar (five hundred swamis of Aihole) were the most celebrated .......................... of southern India.

    Asked in: GPSC Prelims CSP 1 2018

    1. Weavers’ group
    2. Group of soldiers
    3. Federation of feudal lords
    4. Merchant guild
    Show answer

    Answer: D. Merchant guild

    - Anniruvar/Ayyavole 500 was a well-known merchant guild. - They were active in South India from the 9th to 14th centuries. - Played a significant role in regional and international trade.