Art and Culture

Art and Culture is part of Modern History of India. Below are notes on 12 sub-topics, followed by practice MCQs from State PSC and UPSC papers (coming soon).

Cultural Revivalism and Reform Movements

• Asom Chatra Sanmilion: A significant student organization in Assam.
• Lakshminath Bezbaruah: Presided over the first session of the Asom Chatra Sanmilion.

Decline and Adaptation of Traditional Crafts and Industries

• Decline of Traditional Crafts (18th-19th Century):
• Causes:
• De-industrialization: British policy to make India a raw material source and market for British manufactured goods.
• Competition from Machinemade Goods: Cheap, mass-produced British factory goods (e.g., textiles from Manchester) outcompeted Indian handcrafted products.
• Loss of Patronage: Decline of Indian princely states and nobility, who were traditional patrons of luxury crafts, post-colonial conquest.
• Discriminatory Tariff Policies:
• Low/no import duties on British goods entering India.
• High export duties on Indian finished goods going to Britain.
• Lack of State Support: Colonial government did not protect or promote Indian traditional industries.
• New Infrastructure (Railways): Facilitated penetration of British goods into remote Indian markets, displacing local artisans.
• Changing Tastes: European cultural influence shifted preferences among Indian elites towards foreign goods.
• Impact:
• Widespread unemployment and impoverishment among artisans.
• Forced migration from urban craft centers to rural areas, increasing pressure on agriculture.
• Decline of specialized craft towns and villages.
• Adaptation and Survival Strategies:
• Shift to Utilitarian Goods: Artisans adapted to produce simpler, functional items for local consumption.
• Niche Markets: Survival of some highend luxury crafts through limited patronage by remaining native princes or wealthy individuals.
• Export to European Markets: Some crafts (e.g., specialized textiles) found markets in Europe, often under British trading terms.
• Assimilation of New Techniques/ Designs: Artisans sometimes incorporated European designs or techniques to cater to new markets.
• Example - Patola Weave: A highly intricate double ikat textile craft that traditionally flourished in centers like Surat, Patan, and Ahmedabad, facing challenges but surviving due to its unique skill and heritage.

Development of Painting Schools: Company School, Kalighat, and Bengal School

• Company School (Patna School / Company Style):
• Period: Late 18th to mid-19th century.
• Patronage: British East India Company officials.
• Style: Hybrid of traditional Indian and European techniques (e.g., European perspective, shading with Indian themes).
• Medium: Primarily watercolor on paper, mica, and ivory.
• Themes: Everyday Indian life (bazaar scenes, festivals, flora, fauna, occupational groups), portraits.
• Key Artists: Shaikh Mohammad Amir, Ghulam Ali Khan.
• Kalighat Painting:
• Origin: 19th-century Calcutta, near the Kalighat Kali Temple.
• Purpose: Mass-produced, cheap souvenirs for pilgrims.
• Style: Bold outlines, vibrant colors, swift and vigorous brushstrokes, often satirical.
• Themes: Hindu deities (especially Kali), social satire targeting the emerging Bengali 'Babu' class and colonial influence, everyday life.
• Decline: Due to the advent of mechanical printing presses and oleographs.
• Bengal School:
• Period: Early 20th century.
• Context: Nationalist art movement, a reaction against Western academic realism (Raja Ravi Varma's style) and the Company School.
• Founder: Abanindranath Tagore.
• Inspiration: Ajanta murals, Mughal and Rajput miniatures, Japanese wash technique.
• Style: Revivalistic, spiritual, idealised, ethereal, delicate lines, soft colours, using the wash technique. Classified as revivalistic.
• Themes: Indian mythology, history, epics, rural life, and 'Bharat Mata'.
• Key Artists: Abanindranath Tagore, Nandalal Bose (sometimes referred to as Ghosh), Asit Kumar Haldar, Kshitindranath Majumdar, Surendranath Kar.
• Abanindranath Tagore's 'Bharat Mata': Painted in 1905, depicted as a fourarmed Hindu goddess offering food, clothing, and learning. Hailed by Sister Nivedita as the 'first masterpiece of Indian art'.
• Raja Ravi Varma:
• Born: 1848.
• Style: Western academic realism, mastered oil painting.
• Themes: Indian mythology, epics (Mahabharata, Ramayana), portraits of royalty.
• Influence: Popularized Indian mythological art by making affordable oleographs (lithographs) of his paintings accessible to the masses.
• Famous Works: 'Lady Lost in Thought', 'Nair Woman', 'Lady Giving Alms at the Temple', 'Shakuntala', 'Damayanti and the Swan', 'Vishnu on Garuda', 'Galaxy of Musicians'.
• Amrita Sher-Gil:
• Period: Early 20th century (1913-1941).
• Style: Combined European avantgarde (e.g., Post-Impressionism) with Indian themes and subjects. Considered a pioneer of modern Indian art.
• Famous Works: 'Black Nude', 'Sitting Nude', 'Young Girls', 'Three Girls', 'Bride's Toilet', 'Woman on a Charpoy'.
• Other Notable Artists & Developments:
• 19th-century Indian Painting Features: Art production for the open market, the artist (Shilpi) became distinct from the artisan (Karigar), the technique of oil painting was developed, and the distinction between elite and popular art widened.
• Kangra Kalam (18th C.): A style of Pahari painting; themes include Radha-Krishna, Nayikas, Bhagavat Purana, Gita Govinda, love scenes, naturalistic landscapes, and delicate colors.
• Mola Ram: A prominent painter associated with the Garhwal School of painting.
• Gulam Mohammed Sheikh: Painted 'Janata Watch'.
• R.K. Laxman: Famous cartoonist, creator of 'The Common Man' (often depicted as bald, sometimes bespectacled, in a checkered coat and dhoti).
• Shyam Benegal: Directed "The Making of the Mahatma".
• Shivnandan Nautiyal: Painted 'Satyam Shivam Sundaram'.
• Dhundhari Mural Paintings: Found at Amber, Bairath, Mojmabad, and Bhavpura in Rajasthan.
• First Indian Technicolor film: 'Jhansi Ki Rani' (1953), produced and directed by Sohrab Modi.

Establishment of Cultural Institutions, Museums, and Art Schools

• Asiatic Society of Bengal: established 1784 by Sir William Jones in Kolkata.
• Kashi Nagri Pracharini Sabha: founded 1893 in Varanasi.
• Indian Society of Oriental Art: founded by Abanindranath Tagore (with Gaganendranath Tagore) to revive ancient Indian art traditions.
• Nandalal Bose: became Principal of Kala Bhawan (Shantiniketan) in 1922; uniquely decorated the original handwritten Constitution of India.
• Rabindra Nath Tagore: RBI issued Rs. 150 coin to commemorate his Birth Anniversary.
• Kalakshetra Foundation: established 1936.
• Sangeet Natak Akademi: established 1953.
• Lalit Kala Akademi: established 1954.
• National School of Drama (NSD): originally Asian Theatre Institute 1954, renamed NSD 1959.
• Tamil Isai Sangam, Madras: founded by Sir M.A. Muthaiah Chettiar.
• Archaeological work in India: associated figures include Alexander Rea, A. H. Longhurst, Robert Sewell, James Burgess, Walter Elliot, Colin Mackenzie, Alexander Greenlaw, John Marshall, J.F. Fleet.
• Alexander Greenlaw: took first detailed photographs of Hampi archaeological remains in 1856.
• Michael Madhusudan Dutta: offered Membership of the Royal Asiatic Society of Paris.
• Somnath Temple Trust: Morarji Desai was the first Prime Minister to chair it, followed by Narendra Modi.
• Arna-Jhanra – The Desert Museum: open-air museum, linked to traditional knowledge system, has a vast collection of brooms.
• JATAN software for Museum Documentation: developed by C-DAC.
• Museum Conservation: Objects reactive to environmental changes are kept in boxes/ cases for stable environment.
• 26th ICOM General Conference (2022): held in Prague.
• Accession Number Marking: should be permanent (stable, archival quality) ink, safe for the object, and legible (note: ideally reversible, not irreversible).
• Tungsten spotlights: used to highlight large objects or create pools of light.
• Museum Documentation Process (stages): Acquisition → Application of Accession number → Entry in Accession Register → Cataloguing (final stage).
• Solander Boxes: used for storing prints and drawings.
• Victoria Memorial Hall, Kolkata: functions as a Memorial and a History Museum.
• Committee on Archival Legislation (1960): headed by Dr. Tara Chand.
• Archival Exhibition: involves selection of theme, forming an organising committee, and preparing captions of exhibits.
• National Archives of India, Jaipur Record Centre: established in 1989.
• Public Records Act, 1993: came into force on 20 July, 1996.
• Rajputana Agency record series: available at the National Archives of India, Delhi.
• Access to consult records for bonafide research scholars in India: permitted in 1939.
• Public Records Rules, 1997 ("Appraisal"): means evaluation of public records in association with National Archives of India or Archives of Union Territories.
• Abhilekh-Patal (NAI portal) user steps for optimum use: Register, Quick search, File referencing, Advanced search.
• Poddar Collection: preserved at Rajasthan State Archives, Bikaner.
• Sir Patrick Geddes: first came to India in 1915.

Evolution of Literature: Regional Languages, Nationalist Literature, and Prose Development

• Charles Wilkins: First translated BhagavadGita into English (1785).
• Ramnarayan Tarkaratna: Wrote Bengali drama `Kulin Kulasarvasva` (1852) against polygamy.
• Dinabandhu Mitra: Wrote Bengali play `Nil Darpan` (1858-1859), exposing British indigo planters' atrocities.
• Bankim Chandra Chatterjee: Wrote `Durgesh Nandini` (1865), considered a significant early Bengali historical novel.
• Michael Madhusudan Dutta: Wrote Bengali literary epic `Meghnad Badh Kabya` (1861), based on Hindu Ramayana traditions; introduced blank verse in Bengali.
• Bharatendu Harishchandra: Known as the creator of modern Hindi literature.
• Tayayumanavar: His Sittar poetry (Siddhar poetry) primarily consisted of devotional songs.
• Muhammad Iqbal: Poet from Punjab, wrote "Sare Jahan Se Achha".
• Rabindranath Tagore: Notable novels include `Gora`.
• Kesari Singh Barhath: Wrote `Chetavani ra Chungatya` (13 couplets) addressed to Maharana Fateh Singh of Udaipur, urging him not to attend the 1903 Delhi Durbar.
• Dingal: The literary language of Marwari (Western Rajasthani).
• Jagannath Pandit: Translated Euclid's Elements (`Rekhaganita`) into Sanskrit.
• Nationalist Poets (Pre-independence): Ranglal Bandyopadhyay, Nabin Chandra Sen, Hem Chandra Bandyopadhyay.
• Shiv Kumar Batalvi: Not a pre-independence nationalist poet; modern Punjabi poet.
• Prominent Bengali Dramas & Playwrights:
• Girish Chandra Ghosh: `Mir Kasim` (historical drama).
• Dwijendralal Roy (D. L. Roy): `Chhatrapati Shivaji` (historical drama).
• Kshirod Prasad Vidyavinod: `Nand Kumar` (historical drama).
• Nikhil Nath Roy: Primarily a historical writer, not known for drama `Pratapaditya` (often associated with D.L. Roy's or other plays of that era).

Folk Arts and Oral Traditions in the Modern Period

• Mohun Bagan Club (football) founded: 1889.
• India was dismissed twice in a day during a 1952 Test match against England.
• Folk Deities and their respective Clans:
• Harbuiji - Panwar
• Pabuji - Rathore
• Gogaji - Chauhan
• Ramdevji - Tanwar
• 'फूलों की घाटी' (Valley of Flowers) was discovered by Frank Smith.

Impact of Colonialism on Indian Art and Culture

• Charles Wilkins translated Bhagavad Gita into English.
• The Subaltern School of historiography was spearheaded by Ranajit Guha.
• Lumiere Brothers' cinematographe exhibition at Watson's Hotel, Bombay, on 7th August 1896, introduced cinema to India.
• Microfilming in records preservation primarily reduces the risk of deterioration/loss due to calamities and decreases physical storage space.
• Common lamination techniques in archives include Encapsulation, Machine lamination, Tissue lamination, and Hand lamination.
• Hydrogen peroxide is a bleaching agent used in cleaning documents.
• "Reprography" has been internationally accepted to replace "document copying."
• PARBICA (Pacific Regional Branch of the International Council on Archives) is part of the International Council on Archives (ICA).
• K.S. Ranjit Singhji was the first Indian test cricketer.
• 'Chhaava' is a historical epic film noted as a significant Bollywood opening of 2025.
• Krishnadevaraya was known as 'Andhra Bhoj'.

Linguistic Developments and their Cultural Impact

• Saka Samvat: Official civil calendar of India, adopted in 1957.
• Epoch: Year 0 of the Saka era corresponds to 78 CE (Common Era).
• New year begins: Chaitra 1, which typically falls on March 21 (or March 22 in a leap year).
• Conversion from Gregorian to Saka Samvat:
• For dates from Chaitra 1 onwards (approx. March 21/22 to December 31): Saka Year = Gregorian Year - 78.
• For dates before Chaitra 1 (approx. January 1 to March 20/21): Saka Year = Gregorian Year - 79.
• To find Saka Samvat in December 2009: Since December is after Chaitra 1, use 2009 78 = 1931.

Performing Arts: Theatre, Dance (revival and new forms), and Music (Gharanas and Western influence)

• Auragzeb Lodi hosted the Theatre of Delhi in 1926-1927.
• Madhvi Mudgal is associated with Odissi dance.
• Dada Saheb Phalke made the first fully indigenous silent feature film in India ('Raja Harishchandra').
• Suchitra Sen was known as Bengal’s Greta Garbo.
• Theatre Group-City Mapping: Mumbai Bombay Green Theatre; Morbi - Deshi Natak Samaj; Ahmedabad - Aryasubodhak Natak Mandali; Surat - Laxmi-Vijay Natak Mandali.
• Aditya Ram, state musician of Vadodara, popularized the 'Chaturang' singing style (a Dhrupad variant).
• The first Gujarati Parsi theatre group, Parsee Natak Mandali, was founded by Framjee Gustadjee Dalal.
• Parsi theatre initiated Urdu song-drama; adapted English plays and based plays on Iranian history/Indian mythical-historical roles; influenced Gujarati one-act plays.
• Tabla Gharanas & Exponents: Azarara Gharana - Pandit Sudhirkumar Saxena; Lucknow Gharana - Miya Bakshu Khan; Farukha Gharana - Haji Vilayat Alikhan; Punjab Gharana - Zakir Hussain.
• Adi Marzban's contributions to Parsi theatre: Added modernism; gave prominence to songs/music; simplified traditional multiscene plays to one-set productions.
• Tyagaraja created several new Ragas; Annamacharya Kirtanas are devotional songs for Lord Venkateshwara; Annamacharya (15th century) and Tyagaraja (18th century) were not contemporaries.
• Kelucharan Mohapatra was a legendary exponent of Odissi dance.
• 'Sangeet Martand' was the honorary title conferred to Pandit Omkarnath Thakur.
• The Durand Cup football tournament started in 1888 from Annadale.
• Hindustani Classical Music Gharanas & Exponents: Jaipur Gharana - Kishori Amonkar; Patiala Gharana - Vinayakrao Patwardhan; Banaras Gharana - Rajan and Sajan Mishra; Maihar Gharana - Ali Akbar Khan.
• The tradition of Cricket started with the setting up of the Parsee Club.
• Rukmini Devi Arundale founded Kalakshetra. M.S. Subbulakshmi received the Ramon Magsaysay Award (1974). J. Krishnamoorthy did not receive Bharat Ratna.
• Sambhu Maharaj was known as the 'Kathak king of India'.
• Binodini Dasi was a prime mover behind the Star Theatre (1883) in Calcutta; her autobiography 'Amar Katha' was serialized (1910-1913).
• Ritwik Ghatak directed the film 'Subarnarekha' (on India's partition).
• Music Personalities & Contributions: Pandit Vishnu Digambar Paluskar - popularized and set to music 'Vande Mataram'; Venkatamahi introduced Raga classification scheme ('Chaturdandi Prakashika'); Shyama Shastri Carnatic music proponent; Amir Khusro proponent of Khayal form.
• 'Neel Darpan' depicts indigo farmer exploitation. 'Ghashiram Kotwal' was written by Vijay Tendulkar. 'Nabanna' was by Bijon Bhattacharya (not Nabin Chandra Das). Urdu theatre depended heavily on Parsi theatre.
• 'Baki Itihas' was written by Badal Sarkar. 'Sita Swayamvar' by Vishnu Das Bhave. 'Yayati' was written by V.S. Khandekar (not Girish Karnad). 'Giddha' is a folk dance, not a play by Jabbar Patel.
• Lumiere Brothers established the first Film Theatre of India (1896, Bombay).
• 'Pather Panchali' was declared the best Indian film of all time by FIPRESCI.
• 'Alam Ara' was India's first sound (talkie) film.
• Rupa Ganguly played Draupadi in B R Chopra's 'Mahabharat' serial.
• M. S. Subbulakshmi played the title role in the 1945 film 'Meera'.
• Shekhar Kapur directed 'Bandit Queen' (1994).
• Dadasaheb Phalke is known as the 'Father of Indian Cinema'.
• Sarojini Naidu is known as the 'Nightingale of India'.
• Films and Directors: 'Duniya na Mane' (1937) - V. Shantaram; 'Khuda ki Shaan' (1931) - R.S. Chaudhry; 'Sinhagadh' (1923) Baburao Painter; 'Achhut Kanya' (1936) Franz Osten.
• 'Raja Harishchandra' (1913), directed by Dadasaheb Phalke, is considered the first film made in India.
• Fatma Begum was the first Indian woman producer and director in Indian cinema.

Rise of Print Culture and its dissemination of Art and Ideas

• Dadasaheb Phalke: Producer of India's first full-length feature film, "Raja Harishchandra" (1913, silent). Often considered the 'Father of Indian Cinema'.
• "Raja Harishchandra" (1913): First fulllength Indian feature film (silent), produced by Dadasaheb Phalke.
• "Alam Ara" (1931): India's first feature talkie (sound film).
• "The Making of the Mahatma" (1996): Film directed by Shyam Benegal.

Role of Art and Culture in the Nationalist Movement

• Sarojini Naidu was known as 'the Nightingale of India' (Bharat Kokila).
• The study of history fostered nationalism by reinterpreting India's glorious past, refuting British portrayal of Indians as backward, and instilling pride in achievements.
• Rabindranath Tagore's "Unity of Spirit" refers to 'Unity in diversity'.
• Bharathiyar (Subramania Bharati) was the Tamil poet who injected the spirit of Nationalism and National Integration.
• India's National Anthem, "Jana Gana Mana", was composed by Rabindranath Tagore. It was first sung in 1911.
• Rabindranath Tagore wrote the five-stanza Bengali hymn Bharata Bhagya Bidhatra in 1911; its first stanza was adopted as the National Anthem in 1950.
• Tagore himself translated the hymn into English, titling it The Morning Song of India.
• The full version of the National Anthem has a playing time of approximately 52 seconds.
• The first Indian National Flag (an early design) was designed by Sister Nivedita.
• The designer of the modern Indian National Flag is Pingali Venkayya.
• The slogan 'Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan, Jai Vigyan' was given by Atal Behari Vajpayee.
• The famous image of Bharat Mata was painted by Abanindranath Tagore.
• The quote "I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society... it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die" was said by Nelson Mandela.
• The nationalist song "Vande Mataram" is from Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay's novel Anand Math.
• The Ashoka Chakra has 24 spokes.

Socio-Religious Reform Movements and their Cultural Manifestations

• Raja Ravi Varma: A celebrated Indian artist.
• Raja Rammohan Roy: Founder of Brahmo Samaj; authored "Tuhfat-ul-Mujahideen"; editor of "Sambad Kaumudi" and "Mirat-ulAkhbar".
• St. Francis Xavier: One of the founding members of the Jesuit Order.
• St. Francis Xavier: Died on Shangchuan Island, China. His relics are enshrined in the Basilica of Bom Jesus, Goa.
• The Feast of St. Francis Xavier: Celebrated annually in Goa on December 3rd.
• "Vaishnav Jan to Tene Kahiye...": Scripted by Narsinh Mehta.
• Ramdwara in Rajasthan: Religious centers established by the Ram Snehi sect.
• Anna Hazare's actual name: Kisan Baburao Hazare.

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