Reformation and Counter-Reformation is part of World History. Below are notes on 12 sub-topics, followed by practice MCQs from State PSC and UPSC papers (coming soon).

Founder

Huldrych Zwingli.

Core Doctrine

Lord's Supper/Eucharist is purely symbolic, a memorial, not real presence (distinction from Lutheranism and Catholicism).

Impact

Paved the way for Calvinism in Switzerland; early divergence from Luther.

Founder

John Calvin.

Key Work

*Institutes of the Christian Religion* (1536).

Total Depravity: Humanity is inherently sinful.

      • Unconditional Election: God chooses who will be saved (predestination). from the Latinization of his name, "Algorismi."
  • His seminal work, "Kitab al-Jabr walMuqabala," introduced systematic solutions for linear and quadratic equations, giving rise to the term "algebra."
  • His contributions were instrumental in transmitting Indian numerals (which became Arabic numerals) and advanced mathematical concepts to Europe, significantly influencing the subsequent scientific developments during and after the Renaissance.
      • Limited Atonement: Christ died only for the elect.
      • Irresistible Grace: God's grace cannot be rejected by the elect.
      • Perseverance of the Saints: Once saved, always saved.
    • Eucharist Symbolic understanding, similar to Zwingli.

Church Structure

Presbyterian system, governed by elders (presbyters); strong emphasis on moral discipline and theocratic governance in Geneva.

  • Spread

of

Reformed

Theology

(Calvinism)

    • Switzerland Adopted and fused with Zwinglian traditions.

France

Adherents known as

Huguenots; led to significant religious conflicts.

    • Scotland Transformed into

Presbyterianism

under

the

leadership of John Knox.

    • Netherlands Became the

Dutch Reformed Church, a key element in the Dutch revolt against Catholic Spanish rule. (Dutch are Protestants)

Protestants)

    • England Influenced

Puritanism, a movement seeking to "purify" the Church of England from Catholic practices. (British, including English Puritans and Scottish Presbyterians, are Protestants)

including English Puritans and

Scottish

Presbyterians,

are

Protestants)

6. Age of Discovery and European Expansion

Impact

Provided a theological basis for resistance against perceived tyrannical rule, emphasized hard work and discipline.

  • Economic focus: Commercial enterprise and monopolies driven by powerful chartered companies like the VOC (Dutch East India Company) for spices and the WIC (Dutch West India Company) for the Atlantic trade.
  • Administration: Initially company rule, transitioning to direct state control; known for highly organized, often ruthless, economic exploitation.
  • English Colonial Model: Diverse models across North America (settler colonies), India (trading posts evolving into direct rule), Caribbean (plantation colonies), and later Australia/New Zealand.
  • Economic focus: Varied from resource extraction (furs, timber), cash crops (tobacco, cotton, sugar), to extensive trade networks facilitated by chartered companies like the EIC (East India Company).
  • Administration: Evolved from company charters to royal colonies, often allowing varying degrees of self-governance in settler colonies.
  • French Colonial Model: Established colonies in North America (New France/Canada, Louisiana), the Caribbean (e.g., Haiti for sugar), West Africa, and Indochina.
  • Economic focus: Fur trade (North America), sugar production (Caribbean), and other resource exploitation; often competed fiercely with Britain for trade and territory.
  • Administration: Centralized direct royal rule; policies often aimed at assimilation of local populations.
  • Historical Fact (for MCQ 1): France gifted the Statue of Liberty to the United States of America in 1886 as a symbol of friendship and liberty.
  • Historical Fact (for MCQ 2 - American influence): Following the Spanish-American War, the United States gained control of the Philippines and continued to develop its agricultural sector, including the expansion of coconut and sugarcane cultivation.